Peptide Guides

310 articles in this category. All content is educational and for research purposes only.

26RFa and QRFP: The Orexigenic RFamide Peptides Linking Energy Balance, Bone Metabolism, and Adrenal Function

26RFa (QRFP-26) and its longer form QRFP-43 activate GPR103 to drive food intake, regulate bone mass, and stimulate adrenal corticosteroid secretion — making…

15 min read

Abaloparatide (PTHrP 1-34 Analog): Complete Research Profile — Biased PTH1R Agonism, Osteoanabolic Biology, and Bone Formation Research (2026)

Abaloparatide (Tymlos) is an FDA-approved PTHrP(1–34) analog with biased PTH1R agonism that produces a wider osteoanabolic window than teriparatide.

12 min read

ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone): The Master Stress Peptide Driving HPA Axis, Melanocortin Signaling, and Extraadrenal Research (2026)

Complete research profile of ACTH (corticotropin): POMC-derived 39-aa peptide, MC2R signaling, HPA axis regulation, extraadrenal anti-inflammatory effects…

14 min read

Activin A and Activin B: TGF-β Superfamily Ligands Regulating Erythropoiesis, Vascular Remodeling, and Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension with Sotatercept Approval in Research

Activins A and B are dimeric TGF-β superfamily ligands signaling through type II receptors (ActRIIA/ActRIIB) and ALK4/ALK7 kinases to activate SMAD2/3 pathways.

15 min read

Activin A: Complete Research Profile — ACVR1B/ACVR2B Receptor Complex Biology, SMAD2/3 Canonical Signaling, Follistatin Antagonism, Cancer EMT and Cachexia Mechanisms, Reproductive Biology, and Research Applications (2026)

Activin A (INHBA homodimer) signals through ACVR2B/ALK4 to phosphorylate SMAD2/3, tightly regulated by follistatin at picomolar affinity.

14 min read

Adiponectin: The Insulin-Sensitizing Adipokine in Metabolic, Cardiovascular, and Cancer Biology Research (2026)

Adiponectin is the primary insulin-sensitizing adipokine — yet its levels paradoxically fall in obesity.

11 min read

Adipotide (FTPP): Complete Research Profile — Prohibitin-Targeting Proapoptotic Peptide for Adipose Vasculature Research

Complete research profile of Adipotide (FTPP) — the prohibitin-targeting proapoptotic peptide that selectively destroys white adipose tissue vasculature.

10 min read

Adrenomedullin: Complete Research Profile — The Vasoactive CGRP-Family Peptide in Cardiovascular, Tumor Biology, and Neuroendocrine Research (2026)

Adrenomedullin is a vasoactive CGRP-family peptide with cardiovascular, neuroprotective, anti-tumor, and sepsis biomarker research applications.

13 min read

AICAR (Acadesine): Complete Research Profile — AMPK Activator & Exercise Mimetic (2026)

Comprehensive research profile of AICAR (acadesine), the AMPK-activating compound studied as an exercise mimetic.

20 min read

Alamandine: Complete Research Profile — MrgD Receptor Peptide of the Alternative Renin-Angiotensin System and Laboratory Reagent Biology

Alamandine is an endogenous heptapeptide of the alternative renin-angiotensin system that signals through the MrgD receptor.

5 min read

α-MSH (Alpha-Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone): Complete Research Profile — POMC-Derived Tridecapeptide in Pigmentation, Energy Regulation, and Neuroimmune Research (2026)

α-MSH: the POMC-derived tridecapeptide at the center of melanocortin signaling, pigmentation, energy homeostasis, and anti-inflammatory research.

12 min read

Alpha-Synuclein: Complete Research Guide to SNCA Biology, Aggregation Pathways, and Synucleinopathy Research Tools (2026)

Alpha-synuclein research guide: SNCA structure, oligomer-to-fibril aggregation, Lewy body biology, PFF models, and seed amplification assays.

10 min read

Amphiregulin (AREG): Complete Research Profile — ADAM10/17 Ectodomain Shedding, ErbB1/ErbB4 Transactivation, Epithelial Barrier Repair Mechanisms, Regulatory T Cell Amplification, Tumor Immune Evasion Biology, and Research Applications (2026)

Amphiregulin (AREG) is an EGF superfamily member whose biology is defined by ADAM10/ADAM17 ectodomain shedding, HSPG-mediated autocrine/juxtacrine signaling…

14 min read

AMPK/Energy Sensing Signaling: LKB1 Activation, Substrate Network, and Research Tools

AMPK senses AMP:ATP ratio via γ-subunit CBS domains, activating LKB1-dependent T172 phosphorylation.

17 min read

Amylin (IAPP): The Pancreatic Satiety Peptide Driving Metabolic, Neuroscience, and Next-Generation Obesity Research

Comprehensive guide to amylin (IAPP) — the beta-cell co-secreted peptide reshaping metabolic and neuroscience research through novel receptor pharmacology.

14 min read

Amyloid-Beta (Aβ) Peptides: Complete Research Profile — APP Processing, BACE1/γ-Secretase Cleavage, Aggregation Cascade, and Laboratory Research Applications (2026)

Complete research profile of Aβ peptides: APP processing, BACE1 cleavage, Aβ42 aggregation cascade, NMDA receptor disruption, and laboratory research tools.

13 min read

Angiotensin-(1-7): The Counter-Regulatory RAS Peptide — Cardiovascular, Metabolic, and Neuroprotection Research

Angiotensin-(1-7): the counter-regulatory RAS heptapeptide acting via Mas receptor.

12 min read

Angiotensin II (AngII): Complete Research Profile — AT1R/AT2R Signaling, RAAS Cascade, Cardiovascular Fibrosis, and Biased Agonism Research (2026)

Angiotensin II signals through AT1R/AT2R to regulate blood pressure, fibrosis, and RAAS biology. Complete research profile with mechanisms and tools.

14 min read

ANGPTL3, ANGPTL4, and ANGPTL8: Angiopoietin-like Proteins Regulating LPL, Triglycerides, and Dyslipidemia Including Evinacumab in Research

ANGPTL3, ANGPTL4, and ANGPTL8 are members of the angiopoietin-like protein family that coordinately regulate lipoprotein lipase (LPL) activity and plasma…

15 min read

Anti-Müllerian Hormone (AMH): Complete Research Profile — AMHR2 Signaling, Ovarian Reserve Biomarker, PCOS, and Granulosa Cell Tumor Research (2026)

AMH/AMHR2 signaling, structure, and its role as the leading ovarian reserve biomarker in PCOS and granulosa cell tumor research.

10 min read

Apamin: Complete Research Profile — Bee-Venom SK (KCa2) Channel Blocker, Receptor Pharmacology, and Laboratory Reagent Biology

Apamin is an 18-residue bee-venom peptide and the selective blocker of small-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (SK/KCa2) channels — the defining tool for…

6 min read

Apelin Peptides and the APJ Receptor: The Apelinergic System in Cardiovascular, Metabolic, and Aging Research

Explore the apelinergic system — apelin isoforms, ELABELA, and the APJ receptor — driving breakthroughs in cardiovascular, metabolic, and aging research.

14 min read

ARA-290 (Cibinetide) Complete Research Profile — Innate Repair Receptor Agonist, Neuropathy Trials & Tissue Protection (2026)

ARA-290 (Cibinetide) is a non-hematopoietic erythropoietin-derived peptide that activates the innate repair receptor.

32 min read

Argireline (Acetyl Hexapeptide-3): Complete Research Profile — SNARE-Targeting Cosmetic Peptide for Neuromuscular and Skin Research (2026)

Complete research profile of Argireline (Acetyl Hexapeptide-3/8): SNARE complex mechanism, exocytosis inhibition, chromaffin cell catecholamine data, clinical…

11 min read

Artemin (ARTN): Complete Research Profile — GFRα3/RET Receptor Complex, Nociceptor Sensitization, Sympathetic Nervous System Development, and Cancer Biology Research (2026)

Artemin (ARTN): GDNF family ligand signaling through GFRα3/RET — nociceptor sensitization, sympathetic NS development, pain mechanisms, and cancer biology…

13 min read

Asprosin: The Fibrillin-1 Derived Fasting Hormone Linking Adipose Tissue to Hepatic Gluconeogenesis and Hypothalamic Appetite

Asprosin, discovered in 2016 as the C-terminal cleavage product of profibrillin-1 (encoded by FBN1), is a fasting-induced protein hormone from adipose tissue…

15 min read

Autophagy and mTOR Signaling: ULK1 Initiation, LC3 Lipidation, Selective Cargo Recognition, and Research Tools

Mechanistic analysis of autophagy and mTOR signaling — mTORC1 Ragulator-RAG GTPase activation, ULK1/ATG13/FIP200 initiation complex, VPS34/Beclin-1 PI3P…

16 min read

Autophagy Signaling: ULK1 Initiation, LC3 Lipidation, Cargo Receptors, and Mitophagy via PINK1/Parkin

Autophagy signaling drives cellular quality control via ULK1/Beclin-1 initiation, LC3-PE lipidation, p62/NDP52 cargo receptors, and PINK1/Parkin-mediated…

19 min read

BDNF (Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor): Complete Research Profile — TrkB Signaling, Synaptic Plasticity, Neuropsychiatric Research, and Neurodegenerative Disease Applications (2026)

BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor): TrkB signaling, synaptic plasticity, Val66Met polymorphism, adult neurogenesis, and neurodegeneration research.

14 min read

Beta-Endorphin: The POMC-Derived Opioid Neuropeptide in Pain Modulation, Stress, and Neuroimmune Research (2026)

Beta-endorphin is a 31-amino acid POMC-derived opioid neuropeptide central to pain research, HPA axis biology, exercise physiology, and neuroimmune modulation.

14 min read

Blood-Brain Barrier-Crossing Peptides: Complete Research Guide to BBB Shuttle Peptides (2026)

Comprehensive research guide to blood-brain barrier shuttle peptides — Angiopep-2, RVG29, TAT, penetratin, MiniAp-4 — covering mechanisms, receptor targets…

14 min read

BMP-15 (Bone Morphogenetic Protein 15): Complete Research Profile — Cumulin Heterodimer Formation, Species-Specific Signaling, and Fecundity Genetics Research (2026)

BMP-15 pairs with GDF-9 to form cumulin, the most potent oocyte-derived signal known. Explore its species-restricted bioactivity and fecundity genetics.

9 min read

BMP-2 and SMAD Signaling: Osteogenic Differentiation, Receptor Activation, and Research Applications

BMP-2 activates BMPR1A/1B and SMAD1/5/8 to drive osteogenic and chondrogenic differentiation.

18 min read

BMP-7 (Bone Morphogenetic Protein 7): Complete Research Profile — BMPR1A/BMPR1B/BMPR2 Receptor Complex, SMAD1/5/8 Signaling, Kidney Development, Osteogenesis, and Renal Fibrosis Research Applications (2026)

BMP-7 (OP-1) research profile: BMPR1A/ActRIA receptor biology, SMAD1/5/8 canonical and non-SMAD signaling, kidney organogenesis, TGF-β antagonism in renal…

13 min read

BMP-9 (GDF-2): Complete Research Profile — ALK1/Endoglin Signaling, the Most Osteogenic BMP, Vascular Quiescence, and Hereditary Hemorrhagic Telangiectasia Research (2026)

BMP-9 (GDF-2) research profile: ALK1/endoglin signaling, the most osteogenic BMP known, vascular quiescence biology, and HHT disease modeling.

10 min read

BPC-157 Complete Research Guide 2026: Mechanisms, Evidence and Platform Pricing

BPC-157 research guide: VEGFR2 and FAK-paxillin mechanisms, tendon and gut models, the thin human record, the BPC-157 vs TB-500 rat study, 97-supplier pricing.

10 min read

BPC-157 Side Effects: Research Safety Profile, Tolerance & What Lab Studies Show (2026)

Comprehensive review of BPC-157 preclinical safety profile. Preclinical study findings on toxicology, dose-dependent effects, and commonly reported research observations.

15 min read

Bradykinin: The Vasoactive Nonapeptide in Kallikrein-Kinin System, Inflammation, and Pain Research (2026)

Bradykinin drives vasodilation, pain, and inflammation via B1/B2 receptors.

14 min read

Bronchogen (AEDL): The Khavinson Bronchopulmonary Tetrapeptide — Complete Research Profile

Bronchogen (AEDL) is a Khavinson tetrapeptide bioregulator modulating bronchial epithelial gene expression. Research profile for lung biology scientists.

12 min read

C-Peptide (Proinsulin Connecting Peptide): Complete Research Profile — Beta Cell Biology, Microvascular Protection, and Neuropathy Research (2026)

C-peptide is a 31-residue proinsulin fragment with receptor-mediated activity in microvascular protection, renal biology, and diabetic neuropathy research.

12 min read

C1q: Complete Research Profile — Classical Complement Pathway Initiator, Microglial Synaptic Pruning, and Neuroinflammation Research (2026)

C1q research profile: classical complement pathway initiation, C1qA/B/C structure, microglial synaptic pruning, brain aging, and tumor microenvironment biology.

9 min read

C3a and C5a Anaphylatoxins: Complement-Derived Peptides in GPCR Signaling and Inflammation Research

C3a and C5a anaphylatoxins signal through C3aR/C5aR1/C5aR2 GPCRs. A research guide to structure, receptor pharmacology, and lab tool compounds.

9 min read

C5b-9 (Membrane Attack Complex): Complete Research Profile — Terminal Complement Assembly, Pore Formation, Sublytic Signaling, and Therapeutic Inhibition Research (2026)

C5b-9 (MAC) is the terminal complement effector forming transmembrane pores on pathogens and host cells.

9 min read

Calcitonin (CT): Complete Research Profile — The Thyroid C-Cell Peptide, Osteoclast Inhibition, Species Potency Variants, and CTR Signaling in Research (2026)

Calcitonin is a 32-amino acid thyroid C-cell peptide encoded by CALCA.

14 min read

Ca²⁺/Calmodulin/CaMK Signaling: Intracellular Calcium Dynamics, Calmodulin Biochemistry, and CaMKII Bistability

Ca²⁺/CaM/CaMK signaling drives synaptic plasticity, cardiac contractility, and immune activation through IP₃R/RyR release, STIM1/Orai1 SOCE, CaMKII T286…

19 min read

cAMP/PKA/CREB Signaling: Adenylyl Cyclase, Second Messenger Dynamics, and Transcriptional Memory

cAMP/PKA/CREB signaling transmits GPCR stimuli through adenylyl cyclase, PKA holoenzyme dissociation, and CREB S133 phosphorylation to drive CRE-dependent…

18 min read

Cardiogen: Complete Research Profile — Khavinson Cardiac Bioregulatory Tetrapeptide (AEDR) for Heart Tissue Research (2026)

Comprehensive research profile of Cardiogen (AEDR tetrapeptide) — the Khavinson bioregulatory peptide targeting cardiac myocytes.

15 min read

Carnosine (β-Alanyl-L-Histidine): Complete Research Profile — Muscle Buffering, Anti-Glycation, and Neuroprotection Research (2026)

Carnosine (β-alanyl-L-histidine) is an endogenous histidine-containing dipeptide concentrated in excitable tissues.

14 min read

CART Peptide: Complete Research Profile — Cocaine-Amphetamine Regulated Transcript, Energy Homeostasis, Anti-Reward Circuits, and GPR160 Receptor Research (2026)

CART (cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript) peptide integrates psychostimulant signaling, leptin axis, and melanocortin pathways to regulate feeding…

15 min read

Cartalax: Complete Research Profile — Khavinson Tripeptide Bioregulator for Cartilage, Chondrocyte, and Joint Tissue Research

Complete research profile of Cartalax (AED tripeptide) — the Khavinson bioregulator for cartilage and chondrocyte research.

11 min read

Catestatin (CgA352-372): Chromogranin A-Derived Anti-Adrenergic Peptide in Hypertension and Cardiometabolic Research

Catestatin is a 21-amino acid peptide derived from chromogranin A (CgA352-372) that functions as an endogenous inhibitor of catecholamine secretion via…

15 min read

CCK (Cholecystokinin): Complete Research Profile — The Gut-Brain Satiety Peptide in Digestive, Neuroendocrine, and Cognitive Research (2026)

CCK (Cholecystokinin) is the most abundant neuropeptide in the brain and the original gut satiety signal.

11 min read

CCL2 (MCP-1): Complete Research Profile — CCR2 Receptor Axes, NF-κB and AP-1 Transcriptional Control, Monocyte/Macrophage Recruitment, Tumor Microenvironment Biology, and Inflammatory Disease Research Applications (2026)

CCL2 (MCP-1) research profile: CCR2A/B receptor biology, NF-κB/AP-1/HIF-1α transcriptional control, HSPG gradient formation, TAM recruitment assays…

11 min read

CDNF and MANF: Complete Research Profile — The ER-Resident Neurotrophic Factor Family in Parkinson's Disease, Neurodegeneration, and Cytoprotection Research (2026)

CDNF and MANF form a unique family of ER-resident neurotrophic factors that protect dopaminergic neurons via UPR modulation.

16 min read

Cecropins: Complete Research Profile — The Founding Insect Antimicrobial Peptides, Amphipathic α-Helix Mechanism, and Anticancer Research Applications (2026)

Cecropins are the founding family of insect antimicrobial peptides, first isolated from Hyalophora cecropia in 1981.

14 min read

Cetrorelix (Cetrotide): GnRH Antagonist Research Profile

Cetrorelix acetate (Cetrotide) is an FDA-approved decapeptide GnRH antagonist that competitively blocks pituitary GnRHR, providing immediate LH/FSH…

10 min read

cGAS-STING Innate Immunity Signaling: Complete Research Profile — DNA Sensing, 2',3'-cGAMP, TBK1/IRF3 Activation, and Cancer Immunotherapy Research Applications (2026)

Comprehensive research profile of the cGAS-STING innate immunity pathway: cytosolic DNA sensing, 2',3'-cGAMP second messenger biology, STING conformational…

14 min read

CGRP (Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide): The Vasodilatory Neuropeptide Bridging Pain, Cardiovascular, and Tissue Repair Research

Explore CGRP, the 37-amino acid neuropeptide central to pain signaling, cardiovascular protection, immunomodulation, and tissue repair research.

14 min read

Chemerin (RARRES2): Adipokine, Innate Immune Chemoattractant, and Metabolic Regulator via CMKLR1/GPR1/CCRL2 Research

Chemerin is a 163-amino acid adipokine encoded by RARRES2 that requires C-terminal proteolytic processing to become bioactive.

15 min read

CJC-1295 DAC: Long-Acting Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone Analog

CJC-1295 DAC research profile: albumin-binding maleimide chemistry, the two 2006 human pharmacology trials, open safety questions, and 42-supplier pricing.

9 min read

Complement Factor B (CFB): Complete Research Profile — Alternative Pathway C3 Convertase Assembly, Gain-of-Function Variants, and Complement Therapeutics Research (2026)

Factor B structure, C3bBb convertase assembly mechanism, CFB gain-of-function mutations in C3 glomerulopathy, and iptacopan/danicopan complement therapeutics…

10 min read

Complement Factor H (CFH): Complete Research Profile — Alternative Pathway Regulation, AMD/aHUS Genetics, and Complement Therapeutics Research (2026)

Factor H's structure, alternative pathway regulation, Y402H AMD risk, aHUS mutations, CFHR gene family, and complement therapeutics research.

10 min read

Conotoxins: Complete Research Profile — Cone Snail Venom Peptides as Precision Ion Channel Pharmacology Tools (2026)

Conotoxins are disulfide-rich cone snail venom peptides used as precision research tools to dissect ion channel subtypes, nAChR pharmacology, and pain pathway…

14 min read

Cortistatin: Complete Research Profile — The Somatostatin-Related Neuropeptide, Sleep Promotion, Anti-Inflammatory Biology, and SSTR/GHSR Pharmacology (2026)

Cortistatin (CST14/CST17) is a somatostatin-related neuropeptide encoded by the CORT gene with distinct CNS expression, sleep-promoting properties, and potent…

15 min read

CRH (Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone): Complete Research Profile — The HPA Axis Master Peptide in Stress Biology, Neuropsychiatric, and Inflammatory Research (2026)

CRH: the HPA axis master peptide. 2026 research profile covering CRF1/CRF2 signaling, stress, anxiety, neuropsychiatric, and gut inflammatory research.

13 min read

Crotamine: Complete Research Profile — Rattlesnake-Venom Cell-Penetrating Myotoxin, Delivery-Vector Pharmacology, and Laboratory Reagent Biology

Crotamine is a 42-residue cationic rattlesnake-venom myotoxin and one of the best-studied natural cell-penetrating peptides, accumulating in proliferating…

5 min read

CXCL10 (IP-10): Complete Research Profile — CXCR3 Receptor Axes, IFN-γ-Driven Transcription, Th1 Cell Trafficking, Anti-Tumor Immunity, and Autoimmune Disease Research Applications (2026)

CXCL10 (IP-10) research profile: CXCR3-A/B receptor isoforms, IFN-γ/STAT1 transcriptional regulation, DPP4 truncation, cGAS-STING axis, tumor T cell…

12 min read

CXCL12 (SDF-1): Complete Research Profile — CXCR4/ACKR3 Receptor Axes, Hematopoietic Stem Cell Biology, Tumor Microenvironment, and Multi-Domain Research Applications (2026)

CXCL12 (SDF-1) is the master homeostatic chemokine governing hematopoietic stem cell retention, cancer metastasis directionality, and CXCR4-mediated HIV-1…

13 min read

CXCL12 (SDF-1): Dual-Receptor Chemokine Biology, Hematopoietic Niches, and CXCR4-Targeted Research Tools

CXCL12/SDF-1 signals through CXCR4 (Gαi-coupled) and CXCR7/ACKR3 (β-arrestin-biased) to govern HSC BM retention, cancer metastasis, and CNS development — with…

14 min read

CXCL8 (IL-8): Complete Research Profile — CXCR1/CXCR2 Receptor Axes, Neutrophil Chemotaxis, Tumor Microenvironment Biology, and Inflammatory Research Applications (2026)

CXCL8 (IL-8) research profile: CXCR1/CXCR2 receptor biology, neutrophil chemotaxis mechanisms, heparan sulfate binding, tumor microenvironment roles, and in…

14 min read

Cyclotides: Ultra-Stable Plant Cyclic Peptides as Scaffolds for Drug Discovery and Antimicrobial Research (2026)

Cyclotides are ultra-stable plant cyclic peptides with a unique cystine knot topology—complete research profile covering CCK structure, kalata B1, MCoTI…

12 min read

Dermcidin: Anionic Eccrine Sweat Antimicrobial Peptide and Zinc-Dependent Membrane Channel — Pharmacology Research Reagent

Dermcidin is the anionic antimicrobial peptide of human eccrine sweat: its DCD-1L fragment forms a zinc-dependent hexameric membrane channel, a mechanism…

5 min read

Dermorphin and Deltorphin: Complete Research Profile — Frog-Derived D-Amino Acid Heptapeptides as Precision Mu- and Delta-Opioid Receptor Pharmacology Tools (2026)

Dermorphin (mu-selective) and deltorphin (delta-selective) are Phyllomedusa frog heptapeptides — gold-standard research tools in opioid receptor pharmacology.

14 min read

Desmopressin (DDAVP): Vasopressin Analog Research Profile

Desmopressin (DDAVP): vasopressin analog research profile covering V2 receptor mechanism, AQP2 regulation, hemostasis, DI models, and published dosing.

15 min read

Dihexa Dosage Protocol Guide: HGF Mimetic Cognitive Research 2026

Comprehensive research dosage protocols for Dihexa (PNB-0408), the HGF/c-Met pathway activator studied for synaptogenesis and cognitive enhancement.

9 min read

Dihexa: HGF Receptor Agonist for Cognitive and Synaptogenic Research

Dihexa (PNB-0408) potentiates HGF/MET signaling to drive synaptogenesis in rodent models. Research profile: mechanism, oral bioavailability, and pricing.

2 min read

DNA Damage Response Signaling: ATM/ATR Kinases, Checkpoint Enforcement, and PARP Inhibitor Mechanisms

Comprehensive mechanistic analysis of the DNA damage response network: γH2AX/MDC1 foci, ATM/ATR kinase activation, CHK1/CHK2 effectors, cell cycle…

20 min read

DSIP (Delta Sleep-Inducing Peptide) Dosage Protocol Guide — Reconstitution, Research Dosing & Sleep Research 2026

Comprehensive DSIP dosage protocol guide for researchers: reconstitution steps, research dosing ranges (25 µg/kg IV in human studies), administration routes…

10 min read

DSIP (Delta Sleep-Inducing Peptide): The Enigmatic Nonapeptide in Sleep and Stress Research

DSIP (Delta Sleep-Inducing Peptide) is an amphiphilic nonapeptide linked to sleep architecture, stress resilience, and neuroendocrine modulation research.

14 min read

Dulaglutide (LY2189265): Complete Research Profile — GLP-1 Receptor Agonist, Fc Fusion Architecture, REWIND Cardiovascular Data, and Laboratory Applications (2026)

Dulaglutide (LY2189265) is a once-weekly GLP-1 receptor agonist with IgG4 Fc fusion architecture (~90h half-life) used in metabolic, cardiovascular, and…

12 min read

Dynorphin and the Kappa Opioid Receptor: Complete Research Profile — Pain, Stress, Addiction, and Neuropsychiatric Biology (2026)

Dynorphin is the endogenous kappa opioid receptor (KOR) peptide family governing pain, stress-induced aversion, addiction neurobiology, and mood research.

15 min read

EGF (Epidermal Growth Factor): EGFR Asymmetric Dimer Kinase Activation, ErbB Heterodimerization, and Selective Research Tools

EGF activates EGFR via an asymmetric kinase dimer mechanism, driving MAPK/PI3K/STAT3 through ErbB heterodimerization networks, with gefitinib, osimertinib…

14 min read

EGF (Epidermal Growth Factor): Complete Research Profile — EGFR Signaling, Cancer Biology, and Wound Healing Research (2026)

EGF is a 53-amino acid Nobel Prize–winning growth factor that activates EGFR tyrosine kinase, driving cell proliferation, wound healing, and cancer research.

14 min read

Elabela (ELA/APELA): The Second APJ Receptor Ligand Essential for Cardiac Development, Kidney Function, and Preeclampsia

Elabela (ELA), discovered in 2013-2014 as a second endogenous ligand for the apelin receptor (APJ/APLNR), is encoded by a distinct gene from apelin, is…

15 min read

Eledoisin: Cephalopod Tachykinin Undecapeptide and NK3-Preferring Receptor Agonist — Pharmacology Research Reagent

Eledoisin is an 11-residue tachykinin from Eledone octopus salivary glands and the prototypical NK3-preferring neurokinin receptor agonist, completing the…

5 min read

Endoluten (Cytomax A-8): Complete Research Profile — Khavinson Pineal Polypeptide Complex for Circadian Regulation, Melatonin Synthesis, and Longevity Research (2026)

Endoluten (Cytomax A-8) is a natural polypeptide complex derived from bovine pineal gland.

19 min read

Endomorphin-1 and Endomorphin-2: Endogenous High-Selectivity Mu-Opioid Receptor Peptides

Endomorphin-1 (YPWF-NH₂) and endomorphin-2 (YPFF-NH₂) are the most selective endogenous mu-opioid receptor agonists known, discovered in 1997 with…

15 min read

Endothelin-1 (ET-1): Potent Vasoconstrictor Peptide Signaling Through ETA and ETB Receptors with ERA Therapy in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Research

Endothelin-1 (ET-1) is a 21-amino-acid vasoconstrictor produced primarily by endothelial cells that signals through ETA (EDNRA) and ETB (EDNRB) receptors to…

15 min read

Enkephalins: Complete Research Profile — The First Endogenous Opioids in Pain Modulation, Delta Receptor Biology, and Neuroimmune Research (2026)

Enkephalins (Met and Leu) were the first endogenous opioids discovered, activating delta and mu receptors to modulate pain, mood, and immune function.

15 min read

Epigenetic Regulation: Histone Modifications, DNA Methylation, and Chromatin Remodeling in Research

Deep mechanistic guide to epigenetic writers, readers, and erasers: EZH2/PRC2, DNMT/TET, BRD4/BET, SWI/SNF, HDACs, and research tools for chromatin…

17 min read

Epiregulin (EREG): Complete Research Profile — ErbB1/ErbB4 Dual Receptor Binding, ADAM-Mediated Ectodomain Shedding, Colitis-Associated Cancer Promotion, Wound Healing Biology, and Research Applications (2026)

Epiregulin (EREG) uniquely binds both ErbB1 and ErbB4, with NF-κB-driven inflammatory induction linking colitis to colorectal cancer.

13 min read

Erythropoietin (EPO): Hypoxia-Regulated Glycoprotein Hormone Driving Red Blood Cell Production via EPOR/JAK2/STAT5 in CKD Anemia and Hematopoiesis Research

Erythropoietin (EPO) is a 165-amino-acid glycoprotein hormone produced primarily by peritubular renal interstitial cells in response to hypoxia-inducible…

15 min read

Exenatide (Byetta/Bydureon): FDA-Approved GLP-1 Receptor Agonist — Complete Research Profile 2026

Exenatide (Byetta, Bydureon): the first FDA-approved GLP-1 receptor agonist — clinical pharmacology, EXSCEL cardiovascular data, Parkinson's research, and…

18 min read

Exendin-4 (Exenatide): Complete Research Profile — The Gila Monster Peptide That Launched the GLP-1 Revolution (2026)

Exendin-4 (exenatide): the Gila monster GLP-1 receptor agonist — structure, β-cell protection, neuroprotection, and cardiovascular research profile.

10 min read

Fetuin-A (AHSG): Liver-Derived Hepatokine Promoting Insulin Resistance and Inhibiting Vascular Calcification in Metabolic Research

Fetuin-A (alpha-2-Heremans-Schmid glycoprotein, AHSG) is a 60-kDa liver-derived plasma glycoprotein that functions as a natural inhibitor of the insulin…

15 min read

FGF-2 (Basic Fibroblast Growth Factor): Complete Research Profile — Isoforms, FGFR Signaling, Angiogenesis, Stem Cell Culture, and Wound Healing Research (2026)

FGF-2 (bFGF) drives angiogenesis, stem cell self-renewal, and tissue repair via FGFR1-3/ERK/PI3K signaling.

11 min read

FGF-21 (Fibroblast Growth Factor 21): Complete Research Profile — Metabolic Regulator, Longevity Signal, and MASH Therapeutic Candidate (2026)

FGF-21 is a liver-derived endocrine protein studied for metabolic regulation, longevity extension, MASH/NASH reversal, and neuroprotection.

11 min read

FGF-2 (bFGF): FGFR Signaling Diversity, Heparan Sulfate Co-Receptor Biology, and Selective Research Tools

FGF-2 signals through FGFR1-4 with heparan sulfate as obligate co-receptor, driving angiogenesis, wound healing, and neural progenitor renewal — with…

14 min read

FGF23: Bone-Derived Phosphatonin Regulating Renal Phosphate and Vitamin D with Cardiovascular Effects via α-Klotho in Research

Fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) is a 32-kDa bone-derived phosphatonin produced by osteocytes and osteoblasts that regulates phosphate homeostasis by…

15 min read

Ficolins (Ficolin-1, Ficolin-2, Ficolin-3): Complete Research Profile — Lectin Pathway Complement Activators, Fibrinogen-Like Recognition Domains, and Innate Immunity Research (2026)

Complete research guide to the three human ficolins: calcium-independent complement activators with fibrinogen-like recognition domains.

10 min read

FLT3 Ligand (FLT3L): Hematopoietic Growth Factor Driving Dendritic Cell Development and HSC Expansion, with FLT3 Mutations as Key Drivers of AML Pathogenesis and Targeted Therapy

FLT3 ligand (FLT3L/FLT3LG) is the cytokine ligand for the FLT3 receptor tyrosine kinase, driving dendritic cell precursor expansion, hematopoietic stem cell…

15 min read

Follistatin-344 Research Guide: Myostatin Inhibition, Dosage Protocol & Reconstitution (2026)

Follistatin-344 (FST-344) research guide covering myostatin inhibition mechanism, preclinical dosage protocols (50–300 mcg/kg), reconstitution with…

18 min read

FOXO4-DRI (Proxofim): The D-Retro-Inverso Senolytic Peptide Targeting the FOXO4-p53 Axis

Comprehensive research overview of FOXO4-DRI, the D-retro-inverso peptide that selectively targets senescent cells by disrupting the FOXO4-p53 interaction.

16 min read

Fractalkine (CX3CL1): Complete Research Profile — CX3CR1 Receptor Biology, Membrane-Tethered vs. Soluble Forms, Neuroimmune Signaling, Monocyte Patrolling, and Neuroinflammation Research Applications (2026)

Fractalkine (CX3CL1) research profile: membrane-bound vs. soluble forms, ADAM10/17 shedding, CX3CR1 microglial signaling, monocyte subset biology…

11 min read

G-CSF (CSF3): Master Regulator of Granulopoiesis, Neutrophil Mobilization, and Emergency Hematopoiesis via CSF3R/JAK/STAT3 Signaling in Research

G-CSF (CSF3) is the primary cytokine driving neutrophil production and mobilization, signaling through CSF3R/JAK1/STAT3 to accelerate granulopoiesis…

15 min read

Galanin-like Peptide (GALP): GALR2-Selective Neuropeptide at the Intersection of Energy Balance and Reproduction

Galanin-like peptide (GALP) is a 60-amino acid hypothalamic neuropeptide that selectively binds GALR2 over GALR1, co-localizes with kisspeptin in arcuate…

15 min read

Galanin: The Pleiotropic Neuropeptide Bridging Neuroscience, Metabolic, Pain, and Oncology Research

Explore galanin — the 30-amino-acid neuropeptide acting through GalR1, GalR2, and GalR3 — and its expanding roles in epilepsy, neurodegeneration, mood, pain…

14 min read

Gastrin-Releasing Peptide (GRP) and Bombesin: The GRPR Family in Cancer Theranostics, Appetite Research, and Neuropeptide Biology (2026)

GRP and bombesin target the GRPR receptor — overexpressed in prostate, breast, and lung cancers — for cancer theranostics and appetite research.

15 min read

GDF-11 (Growth Differentiation Factor 11 / BMP-11): Complete Research Profile — TGF-β Superfamily Ligand, the Parabiosis Rejuvenation Controversy, and Myostatin Cross-Reactivity in Aging Research (2026)

GDF-11 research profile: TGF-β superfamily structure, ActRIIB/ALK4-5-7/SMAD2-3 signaling, the young-blood parabiosis controversy, and myostatin assay cross-reac

8 min read

GDF-15 (Growth Differentiation Factor 15): Complete Research Profile — GFRAL/RET Receptor Complex, Integrated Stress Response Signaling, Metabolic Stress Biology, Cachexia Research, and Mitohormesis Applications (2026)

GDF-15 research profile: GFRAL/RET hindbrain receptor complex, p53/ATF4/CHOP stress regulation, UPRmt mitokine biology, cachexia biomarker applications, in…

11 min read

GDF-9 (Growth Differentiation Factor 9): Complete Research Profile — Cumulin Heterodimer Biology, Folliculogenesis, Fecundity Genetics, and Oocyte Quality Biomarker Research (2026)

GDF-9 research profile: cumulin heterodimer with BMP-15, SMAD2/3 signaling, sheep fecundity genetics, POI variants, and oocyte quality biomarkers.

10 min read

GDF15 and GFRAL: The Stress-Induced Anorexigenic Hormone Mediating Nausea, Cancer Cachexia, and Metformin Weight Loss

Growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) signals through the brainstem-restricted GFRAL/RET receptor complex in the area postrema to suppress appetite and…

15 min read

GDNF (Glial Cell Line-Derived Neurotrophic Factor): Complete Research Profile — GFRα1/RET Receptor Complex, Dopaminergic Neuroprotection, Kidney Development, and GDNF Family Ligand Biology (2026)

GDNF is the founding GDNF-family ligand and the most potent characterized survival factor for dopaminergic neurons.

11 min read

Ghrelin: The Acylated Gastric Peptide Driving Growth Hormone, Energy Homeostasis, and Neuroprotection Research

Comprehensive guide to ghrelin — the 28-amino-acid acylated peptide, its GHSR signaling, GOAT-mediated octanoylation, LEAP2 antagonism, and research…

15 min read

GHRP-2 (Pralmorelin) Dosage Protocol Guide 2026: Reconstitution, Timing & Research Use

GHRP-2 (Pralmorelin) dosage protocol guide for researchers: reconstitution from 2mg/5mg vials, research dose ranges (100–300 mcg), timing strategies, GHRP…

9 min read

GHRP-2 (Pralmorelin): The Potent Second-Generation Growth Hormone Secretagogue — Complete Research Profile

GHRP-2 (pralmorelin): potent GH secretagogue approved in Japan for GH deficiency testing. Covers mechanism, GH potency, cytoprotection, and GHRP comparison.

11 min read

GHRP-6: The Original Growth Hormone Releasing Peptide — Complete Research Profile

Comprehensive research profile of GHRP-6, the founding synthetic GHRP and dual-receptor ghrelin mimetic.

18 min read

GIP (Glucose-Dependent Insulinotropic Polypeptide): The Forgotten Incretin Driving the Dual-Agonist Revolution

GIP is the original incretin hormone — responsible for up to 70% of postprandial insulin release and the dual target behind tirzepatide's record-breaking…

12 min read

GLP-2 (Glucagon-Like Peptide-2): The Intestinotrophic Hormone Driving Gut Regeneration, Barrier Function, and Metabolic Research

Comprehensive research overview of GLP-2, the proglucagon-derived intestinotrophic peptide, covering receptor signaling, gut barrier function, and analog…

14 min read

Glucagon: The Counterregulatory Pancreatic Peptide in Metabolic, Hepatic, and Multi-Receptor Research (2026)

Glucagon drives hepatic glucose output and amino acid catabolism — a key target in obesity, NASH, and GLP-1/glucagon multi-agonist drug research.

12 min read

Glutathione (GSH): Complete Research Profile — Master Antioxidant Tripeptide in Redox Biology, Cancer, Neurodegeneration, and Cellular Defense Research

Comprehensive research profile of glutathione (GSH) — the master antioxidant tripeptide.

12 min read

Glutathione (GSH) Dosage Protocol Guide — IV, Subcutaneous & Nebulized Research Use (2026)

Research protocols for glutathione (GSH) dosing across all administration routes: IV infusion (600–2,400 mg), subcutaneous (200–600 mg), and nebulized…

11 min read

GM-CSF (CSF2 / Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor): Complete Research Profile — The Myeloid Differentiation Cytokine in Hematopoiesis, Immunotherapy, and Inflammatory Disease Research (2026)

GM-CSF (CSF2) drives granulocyte and macrophage differentiation via JAK2-STAT5 signaling, anchoring hematopoiesis, DC maturation, and immunotherapy research.

11 min read

GnRH Antagonists (Cetrorelix, Ganirelix, Degarelix): Complete Research Profile — Competitive GnRHR Blockade, Gonadotropin Suppression, and Multi-Domain Research Applications (2026)

Complete research profile of GnRH antagonist peptides cetrorelix, ganirelix, and degarelix — covering GnRHR competitive antagonism, immediate LH/FSH…

12 min read

Gonadorelin (GnRH): The Master Reproductive Decapeptide in Neuroendocrine and Oncology Research

Explore gonadorelin (GnRH), the hypothalamic decapeptide governing LH/FSH release — covering structure, pulsatile signaling, analogs, and oncology research.

14 min read

Gonadorelin Research Profile — FDA-Approved GnRH Peptide for Reproductive Research (2026)

Gonadorelin (native GnRH) research profile: pulsatile vs. continuous mechanism, FDA approval, reconstitution protocol, research dosing, and head-to-head…

12 min read

GsMTx-4: Complete Research Profile — Tarantula Spider Venom Peptide as Mechanosensitive Channel Inhibitor for PIEZO1, PIEZO2, and TRP Channel Research (2026)

GsMTx-4: the tarantula spider venom ICK peptide that blocks PIEZO1, PIEZO2, and TRPC channels via a bilayer-mediated gating mechanism — complete lab research…

11 min read

Guanylin and Uroguanylin: Intestinal Peptide Hormones Activating Guanylate Cyclase-C with cGMP/CFTR-Mediated Chloride Secretion and the Basis for Linaclotide and Plecanatide Therapy in Research

Guanylin (GUCA2A) and uroguanylin (GUCA2B) are intestinal peptide hormones that activate guanylate cyclase-C (GCC/GUCY2C) to produce cGMP, stimulating…

15 min read

HCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin): Complete Research Profile — LH-Mimetic Glycoprotein Hormone in Reproductive Biology, Hypogonadism, and Hormonal Research (2026)

HCG is a glycoprotein hormone produced by the placenta during pregnancy and used extensively in reproductive biology research.

16 min read

Hedgehog/Gli Signaling: SMO Activation, Primary Cilia, and Transcriptional Control by Gli Proteins

Hedgehog/Gli signaling drives neural tube patterning, limb morphogenesis, and cerebellar development through SMO activation, primary cilia…

18 min read

Hemokinin-1: Mammalian TAC4 Tachykinin and Non-Neuronal NK1 Receptor Agonist — Pharmacology Research Reagent

Hemokinin-1 is a mammalian TAC4-encoded tachykinin and non-neuronal NK1 receptor agonist — the immune-system counterpart to neuronal substance P, key to…

5 min read

Hepcidin (HAMP): Master Iron Regulatory Hormone Controlling Ferroportin, Anemia of Chronic Disease, and Hereditary Hemochromatosis in Research

Hepcidin is a 25-amino-acid liver-derived peptide hormone that functions as the master regulator of systemic iron homeostasis by binding ferroportin and…

15 min read

Hexarelin: The Most Potent GHRP — Complete Research Profile

Hexarelin: the most potent synthetic GHRP in its class. Dual GHS-R1a/CD36 pharmacology, deep cardiovascular research profile, and GHRP family comparison.

11 min read

HGF (Hepatocyte Growth Factor): Complete Research Profile — c-Met Receptor Signaling, Liver Regeneration, Angiogenesis, and Multi-Domain Research Applications (2026)

HGF (Hepatocyte Growth Factor) signals through c-Met to drive liver regeneration, angiogenesis, wound healing, and neuroprotection — a key paracrine growth…

13 min read

HGF (Hepatocyte Growth Factor): MET Receptor Kinase Biology, Gab1 Scaffold Signaling, Invasion, and Selective Research Tools

HGF signals through MET via the Gab1/PI3K/SHP2 scaffold to drive scatter, tubulogenesis, and invasion — with capmatinib, tepotinib, NK4, and SHP099 as…

14 min read

Hippo/YAP-TAZ Signaling: LATS Kinase Cascade, Mechanosensing, TEAD Transcription, and Research Tools

Hippo pathway controls organ size via MST1/2-LATS1/2-YAP/TAZ axis. YAP/TAZ nuclear activity responds to cell density, ECM stiffness, and F-actin tension.

16 min read

Histrelin (Supprelin LA/Vantas) Research Profile — FDA-Approved GnRH Agonist Subdermal Implant 2026

A comprehensive research profile of histrelin — the synthetic GnRH decapeptide analog delivered as a 12-month subdermal hydrogel implant.

10 min read

Human Defensins (HNP1–4, HD5–6, hBD1–4): Complete Research Profile — Alpha- and Beta-Defensin Structure, Innate Immunity, and Laboratory Research Applications (2026)

Comprehensive research profile of human alpha-defensins (HNP1–4, HD5–6) and beta-defensins (hBD1–4): disulfide-stabilized structure, membrane-disruption…

18 min read

Humanin: The Mitochondrial-Derived Peptide Redefining Cytoprotection Research

Explore humanin, the first mitochondrial-derived peptide (MDP), its cytoprotective signaling, analogs like HNG, and its role in aging research.

12 min read

Icatibant (Firazyr): Bradykinin B2 Antagonist Research Profile

Research profile of icatibant (Firazyr) — the FDA-approved selective bradykinin B2 receptor antagonist for hereditary angioedema.

10 min read

IFN-γ (Interferon Gamma): Complete Research Profile — The Defining Th1 Cytokine in Cancer Immunotherapy, Macrophage Activation, and JAK-STAT1 Signaling Research (2026)

IFN-γ research profile: IFNγR1/R2 pharmacology, JAK-STAT1-IRF1 signaling, M1 macrophage activation, antitumor immunity, and PD-L1 checkpoint biology.

13 min read

IGF-1 DES(1-3): The N-Terminal Truncated Insulin-Like Growth Factor — Complete Research Profile (2026)

DES(1-3) IGF-1 is a naturally occurring truncated form of IGF-1 with ~1% IGFBP binding affinity and ~10× potency in cell culture.

11 min read

IGF-1 (Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1): Complete Research Profile — Structure, Signaling, and Multi-Tissue Applications

Research guide to IGF-1: molecular structure, IGFBP regulatory system, PI3K/mTOR signaling pathways, and applications in muscle, bone, and neuroprotection.

14 min read

IGF-1 LR3 (Long R3 IGF-1): The Engineered Growth Factor Analog in Cell Culture and Biomedical Research

Comprehensive research profile of IGF-1 LR3, the 83-amino acid engineered IGF-1 analog with reduced IGFBP binding and enhanced potency in cell culture.

14 min read

IGF-1 (Insulin-like Growth Factor 1): IGF1R/IR Crosstalk, IRS-1/2 Scaffold Biology, and IGFBP Regulation in Research

IGF-1 signals through IGF1R/IR hybrid receptors via IRS-1/2 scaffold to PI3K/Akt/mTORC1/FOXO, with IGFBP proteolysis gating bioavailability and IGF1R…

14 min read

IL-1β (Interleukin-1 Beta): Complete Research Profile — The Inflammasome-Activated Cytokine in NLRP3 Biology, Pyroptosis, and Autoinflammatory Disease Research (2026)

Complete research profile of IL-1β: NLRP3 inflammasome activation, caspase-1 processing, gasdermin D pyroptosis, IL-1R1 signaling, and research in…

14 min read

IL-10 (Interleukin-10): Complete Research Profile — The Master Anti-Inflammatory Cytokine, IL-10RA/IL-10RB-JAK1-TYK2-STAT3 Signaling, Immunological Homeostasis, and Tumor Microenvironment Research (2026)

IL-10 is the master anti-inflammatory cytokine signaling through IL-10RA/IL-10RB to activate JAK1-TYK2-STAT3.

11 min read

IL-11 (Interleukin-11): Complete Research Profile — The Pro-Fibrotic Aging Cytokine, IL-11Rα/gp130 Signaling, Oprelvekin Thrombopoiesis Biology, and Anti-IL-11 Longevity Research (2026)

IL-11 (Interleukin-11) is an IL-6 family cytokine signaling via IL-11Rα/gp130 with dual roles in thrombopoiesis and multi-organ fibrosis.

12 min read

IL-12 (Interleukin-12): Complete Research Profile — The Heterodimeric Th1-Polarizing Cytokine, IL-12Rβ2/STAT4 Signaling, and Emerging Cancer Immunotherapy Research (2026)

IL-12 (p35/p40 p70): master Th1 cytokine. STAT4 signaling, NK cell activation, antitumor immunity, and emerging mRNA-based cancer immunotherapy research.

15 min read

IL-15 (Interleukin-15): Complete Research Profile — IL-15Rα Trans-Presentation, NK Cell Homeostasis, CD8+ Memory T Cell Biology, and Cancer Immunotherapy Research Applications (2026)

IL-15 drives NK cell development and CD8+ memory T cell homeostasis via unique trans-presentation through IL-15Ra.

12 min read

IL-17A (Interleukin-17A): Complete Research Profile — The Th17-Derived Cytokine Driving Autoimmune Inflammation via IL-17RA/ACT1/NF-κB Signaling, Psoriasis, Spondyloarthritis, and the Basis for Anti-IL-17 Biologics (2026)

IL-17A is the founding IL-17 family cytokine: a Th17-derived homodimer that drives neutrophil recruitment, autoimmune tissue damage, and epidermal pathology…

13 min read

IL-18 (Interleukin-18): Complete Research Profile — NLRP3 Inflammasome Processing, IL-18R1/IL-18RAP Signaling, NK Cell Activation, and Emerging Cancer Immunotherapy Research Applications (2026)

IL-18 is processed by the NLRP3 inflammasome and synergizes with IL-12 to activate NK cells and drive IFN-γ via IL-18R1/NF-κB for cancer immunology research.

13 min read

IL-21 (Interleukin-21): Complete Research Profile — IL-21R/γc Receptor Complex, JAK1/JAK3/STAT3 Signaling, T Follicular Helper Biology, B Cell Differentiation, and Cancer Immunology Research Applications (2026)

IL-21 research profile: IL-21R/γc receptor biology, JAK1/JAK3/STAT3 signaling, Tfh–B cell germinal center interactions, plasma cell differentiation assays…

12 min read

IL-22 (Interleukin-22): Complete Research Profile — IL-22R1/IL-10R2 Receptor Complex, JAK/STAT3 Signaling, Epithelial Barrier Biology, and Mucosal Immunity Research Applications (2026)

IL-22 acts on barrier epithelia via IL-22R1/STAT3, inducing REG3 antimicrobials and tight junction proteins for gut, liver, and mucosal immunity research.

13 min read

IL-23 (Interleukin-23): Complete Research Profile — p19/p40 Heterodimer, IL-23R Signaling, Th17 Cell Maintenance, and the Immunology of Autoimmune Disease Research (2026)

Comprehensive research profile of IL-23: p19/p40 structure, IL-23R/IL-12Rβ1 signaling, Th17 maintenance, and role in psoriasis, IBD, and spondylarthritis…

15 min read

IL-25 (IL-17E): Complete Research Profile — IL-17RA/IL-17RB Receptor Complex, Epithelial Alarmin Signaling, ILC2 and Th2 Activation, Type 2 Immunity, and Allergic Inflammation Research Applications (2026)

IL-25 (IL-17E) research profile: IL-17RB/IL-17RA receptor complex, Act1/TRAF6/NF-κB signaling, tuft cell–ILC2 circuit, airway alarmin production assays, ILC2…

11 min read

IL-31 (Interleukin-31): Complete Research Profile — IL-31RA/OSMR Receptor Complex, JAK1/JAK2/STAT3/STAT5 Signaling, Sensory Neuron Itch Biology, Skin Barrier Dysfunction, and Atopic Dermatitis Research Applications (2026)

IL-31 research profile: IL-31RA/OSMRβ receptor complex, JAK1/JAK2/STAT3 signaling, DRG neuron itch activation, keratinocyte barrier dysfunction, skin…

11 min read

IL-33 (Interleukin-33): Complete Research Profile — The Nuclear Alarmin, ST2/IL-1RAcP Signaling, Type 2 Inflammation, and Anti-IL-33 Biologic Research (2026)

IL-33 is a nuclear alarmin of the IL-1 family signaling via ST2/IL-1RAcP to activate ILC2s, mast cells, and type 2 inflammatory cascades. 2026 research profile.

12 min read

IL-34: Complete Research Profile — CSF1R and PTP-ζ Dual Receptor Biology, Microglial Identity Maintenance, Skin Langerhans Cell Homeostasis, Osteoclastogenesis Signaling, and Research Applications (2026)

IL-34 is the second CSF1R ligand with non-redundant spatial biology: it maintains microglia in cortex/cerebellum and Langerhans cells in skin epidermis.

13 min read

IL-4 and IL-13: The Twin Th2 Cytokines Driving Type 2 Inflammation — IL-4Rα Receptor Complexes, STAT6 Signaling, and the Rationale for Selective Biologic Research (2026)

IL-4 and IL-13 are the central Th2 cytokines driving type 2 inflammation via shared IL-4Rα receptor complexes and STAT6 signaling.

14 min read

IL-6 (Interleukin-6): Complete Research Profile — The Pleiotropic Cytokine Bridging Inflammation, Immunity, and Cancer via gp130/JAK/STAT3 Signaling (2026)

IL-6 drives acute phase response, Th17/Treg balance, and oncogenic STAT3 via gp130/JAK signaling. Research profile: classic vs. trans-signaling 2026.

12 min read

IL-7 (Interleukin-7): Complete Research Profile — CD127/γc Receptor Complex, JAK1-JAK3/STAT5 Signaling, T Lymphopoiesis, and Emerging Cancer Immunotherapy Research Applications (2026)

IL-7 drives T lymphopoiesis via CD127/γc-JAK1-JAK3-STAT5 signaling.

14 min read

Interleukin-2 (IL-2): T Cell Growth Factor, Treg Maintenance, and the Paradox of Immune Stimulation and Tolerance via IL-2R/JAK1-JAK3/STAT5 Signaling in Research

IL-2 (interleukin-2) is the archetypal T cell growth factor, signaling through trimeric IL-2Rαβγ (CD25/CD122/CD132) to drive T cell proliferation and survival…

15 min read

Ipamorelin: The Selective Growth Hormone Secretagogue — Complete Research Profile

Comprehensive research profile of ipamorelin: mechanism of action via GHS-R1a, selectivity advantages over GHRP-6, GH pulsatility pharmacokinetics, bone…

18 min read

Irisin (FNDC5): Complete Research Profile — The Exercise-Induced Myokine in Metabolic, Neuroprotection, and Bone Biology Research (2026)

Irisin is the exercise-induced myokine cleaved from FNDC5 by PGC-1α activation.

12 min read

JAK/STAT Signaling: Cytokine Receptor Activation, STAT Dimerization, and Transcriptional Programs

JAK/STAT signaling relays cytokine signals via JAK1/2/3/TYK2 kinases and STAT transcription factors.

17 min read

Kassinin: Amphibian Tachykinin Dodecapeptide and NK2-Preferring Receptor Agonist — Pharmacology Research Reagent

Kassinin is a 12-residue amphibian tachykinin from Kassina senegalensis frog skin and the prototypical NK2-preferring neurokinin receptor agonist, key to…

5 min read

Klotho (α-Klotho): The Anti-Aging Longevity Protein in Kidney, Neuroprotection, and Cardiovascular Research (2026)

Comprehensive research profile of α-Klotho: mechanisms of action, FGF23 co-receptor function, KP1 peptide fragments, and applications in aging, kidney, brain…

10 min read

Kv1.3 Channel-Blocking Peptides: ShK, Charybdotoxin, and Margatoxin as Precision Research Tools for Effector Memory T Cell Biology (2026)

ShK, Charybdotoxin, and Margatoxin: precision Kv1.3-blocking peptides for effector memory T cell research, autoimmunity studies, and electrophysiology.

13 min read

Lactoferricin: Complete Research Profile — Bovine Lactoferrin-Derived Antimicrobial Peptide in Antimicrobial, Antiviral, and Anticancer Research (2026)

Lactoferricin (LfcinB): antimicrobial, antiviral, and anticancer research profile of the 25-residue bovine lactoferrin-derived cationic peptide (RUO).

11 min read

Lanreotide (Somatuline Depot): Complete Research Profile — Long-Acting Somatostatin Analog for Acromegaly and Neuroendocrine Tumor Research (2026)

Lanreotide (Somatuline Depot) is an FDA-approved cyclic octapeptide somatostatin analog (SSTR2/SSTR5) with unique aqueous nanotube depot formulation enabling…

14 min read

Larazotide Acetate (AT-1001): Complete Research Profile — Zonulin Antagonist, Tight Junction Regulator, and Intestinal Barrier Research Tool (2026)

Larazotide acetate (AT-1001) is a synthetic octapeptide zonulin receptor antagonist that seals intestinal tight junctions, enabling barrier integrity research…

13 min read

LEAP2: Complete Research Profile — The Endogenous Ghrelin Receptor Antagonist, Liver-Derived Satiety Signal, and Counter-Regulator of Ghrelin Action (2026)

LEAP2 is a liver-derived peptide that antagonizes the ghrelin receptor (GHSR-1a), rising after meals to counteract ghrelin-driven hunger — completing the…

15 min read

Leptin: The Adipokine Master Regulator of Energy Homeostasis and Metabolic Research (2026)

Leptin is the adipokine master regulator that signals energy status to the brain.

11 min read

Leuprolide Acetate (Lupron) Complete Research Profile — GnRH Agonist Mechanism, Clinical Applications, and Research Insights 2026

Leuprolide acetate is the most widely used GnRH agonist worldwide.

15 min read

Lipocalin-2 (LCN2/NGAL): Bone-Derived Appetite Suppressor via MC4R and Adipose-Derived Pro-Inflammatory Adipokine in Metabolic Research

Lipocalin-2 (LCN2), also known as neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), is a 25-kDa lipocalin superfamily member with strikingly dual biological…

15 min read

Liraglutide Research Profile: FDA-Approved GLP-1 Analog (Victoza & Saxenda)

Liraglutide (Victoza/Saxenda): FDA-approved GLP-1 agonist research guide. LEADER trial, SCALE data, dosing, and comparison to semaglutide and tirzepatide.

14 min read

Livagen (KEDA Tetrapeptide): Complete Research Profile — Khavinson Liver & Chromatin Decondensation Bioregulator (2026)

Complete research profile of Livagen (KEDA tetrapeptide, Lys-Glu-Asp-Ala) — the Khavinson bioregulator best known for chromatin decondensation in aged…

14 min read

M-CSF (CSF1): Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor Governing Monocyte/Macrophage Differentiation, Osteoclastogenesis, and Tumor Microenvironment Remodeling via CSF1R/FMS Signaling in Research

M-CSF (CSF1) is the principal cytokine driving monocyte and macrophage differentiation, survival, and proliferation through its receptor CSF1R (c-FMS), a…

15 min read

Magainins: Complete Research Profile — Xenopus laevis Antimicrobial Peptides, Toroidal Pore Mechanism, and Pexiganan as a Clinical Analog (2026)

Magainins are cationic α-helical AMPs from Xenopus laevis. Covers toroidal pore mechanism, antimicrobial spectrum, pexiganan (MSI-78), and lab research…

11 min read

Mannose-Binding Lectin (MBL): Complete Research Profile — Lectin Pathway Initiator, MASP Activation, MBL2 Polymorphisms, and Innate Immune Research (2026)

MBL research profile: lectin complement pathway initiation via MASP-1/2, MBL2 gene polymorphisms, Ca2+-dependent CRD carbohydrate recognition, and innate…

8 min read

Matrixyl (Palmitoyl Pentapeptide-4 / Pal-KTTKS): Complete Research Profile — Signal Peptide, ECM Remodeling, and Anti-Aging Biology (2026)

Matrixyl (Pal-KTTKS): collagen-derived signal peptide driving ECM upregulation in fibroblasts via TGF-β. Research profile, mechanism, and clinical data.

9 min read

Maximakinin: Amphibian Bradykinin-Related Nonadecapeptide and B2 Receptor Agonist — Pharmacology Research Reagent

Maximakinin is a 19-residue bradykinin-related peptide from Bombina maxima toad skin: a selective B2 receptor agonist with prolonged signalling and…

5 min read

Melanin-Concentrating Hormone (MCH): Complete Research Profile — The Orexigenic LHA Neuropeptide, MCH-R1 Pharmacology, REM Sleep, and Obesity Research (2026)

Melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) is a 19-aa cyclic LHA neuropeptide acting via MCH-R1 to powerfully stimulate feeding, promote REM sleep, and regulate…

15 min read

Melittin: Complete Research Profile — Amphipathic Bee-Venom Cytolytic Peptide, Membrane Pharmacology, and Laboratory Reagent Biology

Melittin is a 26-residue amphipathic cationic peptide, the principal cytolytic component of honeybee venom, that permeabilizes lipid membranes and forms pores.

5 min read

Meteorin-like (METRNL): Exercise-Induced Myokine, KIT Ligand and Beige-Fat Regulator

METRNL research profile: exercise- and cold-induced myokine acting via eosinophil IL-4, KIT receptor ligand in heart repair, and the diabetes biomarker data.

7 min read

Methylene Blue: Mitochondrial Electron Carrier for Neuroprotection Research

Methylene blue as a mitochondrial electron carrier: cell, rat and human fMRI evidence, hormetic dose-response, MAO-A interaction, and 16-supplier pricing.

9 min read

MGF (Mechano Growth Factor / IGF-1Ec): Complete Research Profile — The Mechanosensitive IGF-1 Splice Variant in Muscle, Neural, and Cardiac Research (2026)

MGF (IGF-1Ec) is a mechanosensitive IGF-1 splice variant driving satellite cell activation, neuroprotection, and cardiac repair. Research profile.

15 min read

MK-677 (Ibutamoren): Complete Research Profile — Oral GH Secretagogue, Mechanism, Clinical Data

Comprehensive research profile of MK-677 (ibutamoren) — orally bioavailable non-peptide ghrelin receptor agonist and growth hormone secretagogue.

19 min read

Motilin: The Interdigestive Peptide Hormone Regulating GI Motility, MMC Phase III, and Prokinetic Research (2026)

Motilin is a 22-aa enteroendocrine peptide that regulates the migrating motor complex and is the primary research target for prokinetic drug development.

14 min read

MOTS-c: Mitochondrial-Derived Peptide for Metabolic Homeostasis Research

Research guide for MOTS-c, a mitochondrial-derived signaling peptide that regulates metabolic homeostasis through AMPK activation and insulin sensitization.

16 min read

mTOR/PI3K/Akt Signaling: Nutrient Sensing, Growth Control, and Therapeutic Targeting

PI3K/Akt/mTOR integrates growth factor signals and nutrient status via PIP3, S6K1, and 4E-BP1.

16 min read

mTOR Signaling: PI3K/AKT Upstream Activation, mTORC1/mTORC2 Architecture, and Nutrient Sensing in Research

Mechanistic deep-dive into mTORC1/mTORC2 architecture, PI3K/AKT/TSC/RHEB axis, RAG/Ragulator amino acid sensing, S6K1/4EBP1/ULK1 substrates, and research…

15 min read

Myostatin (GDF8/MSTN): TGF-β Superfamily Muscle Mass Inhibitor and Therapeutic Target in Cachexia, Muscular Dystrophy, and Sarcopenia Research

Myostatin (GDF8/MSTN) is a TGF-β superfamily member produced predominantly by skeletal muscle that suppresses muscle mass through ActRIIB/ALK4/5/SMAD2/3…

15 min read

Nafarelin (Synarel) Research Profile — FDA-Approved GnRH Agonist Nasal Spray for Endometriosis Research 2026

Nafarelin (Synarel) is the only FDA-approved nasally delivered GnRH agonist — a [D-Nal(2)6]-GnRH decapeptide approved for endometriosis and central precocious…

10 min read

Natriuretic Peptides (ANP, BNP, CNP): The Cardiac Hormone Family Governing Cardiovascular, Renal, and Metabolic Research

Comprehensive guide to natriuretic peptides — ANP, BNP, and CNP — covering their receptors, cGMP signaling, cardiovascular effects, and research applications.

14 min read

Nesfatin-1 (NUCB2): Complete Research Profile — The Multifunctional Neuropeptide in Appetite, Metabolic, Cardiovascular, and Neuroendocrine Research (2026)

Nesfatin-1 (NUCB2): 82-amino acid neuropeptide in appetite suppression, hepatic glucose control, cardioprotection, and reproductive neuroendocrine research.

11 min read

Nesiritide (Natrecor) Research Profile: FDA-Approved Recombinant BNP for Cardiac Research 2026

Comprehensive research profile of nesiritide (Natrecor), the FDA-approved recombinant human B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP).

10 min read

Neuregulin-1 (NRG1/Heregulin): Complete Research Profile — ErbB3/ErbB4 Receptor Selectivity, ErbB2 Heterodimerization, Cardiac Development and Cardioprotection, Schwann Cell Myelination, Schizophrenia-Linked Signaling, and Research Applications (2026)

Neuregulin-1 (NRG1/Heregulin) exclusively binds ErbB3/ErbB4, driving potent PI3K-AKT via ErbB2:ErbB3 heterodimers.

13 min read

Neuregulin-4 (NRG4): Brown Adipose Tissue-Derived Batokine Protecting Against NAFLD via ErbB3/ErbB4 Signaling in Research

Neuregulin-4 (NRG4) is a member of the EGF-like growth factor family encoded by NRG4, predominantly expressed in brown adipose tissue (BAT) and functioning as…

15 min read

Neuromedin U and Neuromedin S: Complete Research Profile — Anorexigenic Neuropeptides, NMUR Receptor Biology, and the Neuro-Immune Axis (2026)

Neuromedin U (NMU) and Neuromedin S (NMS) are potent anorexigenic neuropeptides acting via NMUR1/NMUR2 receptors to regulate feeding, thermogenesis, stress…

15 min read

Neuropeptide B and Neuropeptide W: GPR7/GPR8 Orexigenic System in Energy Balance and Immune Modulation

Neuropeptide B (NPB) and Neuropeptide W (NPW) were simultaneously identified in 2002 as the endogenous ligands for GPR7 and GPR8, two orphan receptors related…

15 min read

Neuropeptide S: Complete Research Profile — Arousal, Anxiolysis, Fear Extinction, and the NPSR1 Panic Disorder Genetics (2026)

Neuropeptide S (NPS) promotes arousal while reducing anxiety via NPSR1 — a pharmacologically unique combination.

15 min read

Neuropeptide Y (NPY): The Pleiotropic Hypothalamic Peptide Driving Appetite, Cardiovascular, and Cancer Research

NPY is one of the most abundant neuropeptides in the brain, governing appetite, cardiovascular tone, bone metabolism, and tumor biology via five Y receptor…

11 min read

Neurotensin: The Pleiotropic Neuropeptide Bridging Dopamine Modulation, Cancer Biology, and Gut-Brain Research (2026)

Neurotensin (NT) research profile: the 13-aa neuropeptide bridging dopamine modulation, NTSR1 cancer biology, gut hormone physiology, and antipsychotic…

12 min read

Neurturin (NRTN): Complete Research Profile — GFRα2/RET Receptor Complex, Parasympathetic and Enteric Nervous System Biology, and CERE-120 Gene Therapy Research (2026)

Neurturin (NRTN) is the second GDNF family ligand, signaling via GFRα2/RET to support enteric, parasympathetic, and sensory neurons.

12 min read

NF-κB Signaling: IKK Complex Activation, IκBα Degradation, and Transcriptional Control of Inflammation and Survival

NF-κB signaling drives inflammatory and survival gene programs through IKKβ-mediated IκBα degradation, canonical/non-canonical pathway bifurcation, and RelA…

16 min read

NF-κB Signaling: IKK Complex Activation, Canonical vs. Non-Canonical Pathways, and Research Tools

NF-κB drives inflammation and immunity via IKK-IκBα canonical and NIK-IKKα non-canonical pathways.

16 min read

NGF (Nerve Growth Factor): Complete Research Profile — The Founding Neurotrophin, TrkA/p75NTR Receptor Biology, and Emerging Research in Pain and Alzheimer's Disease (2026)

NGF is the founding neurotrophin—its discovery earned the 1986 Nobel Prize.

12 min read

Nisin and Lantibiotics: Complete Research Profile — Lanthionine-Bridged Peptide Antibiotics, Lipid II Dual Targeting, and Laboratory Research Applications (2026)

Nisin is the prototypical lantibiotic: a post-translationally modified peptide from Lactococcus lactis that defeats Gram-positive bacteria through dual Lipid…

16 min read

Nociceptin/Orphanin FQ: Complete Research Profile — The Fourth Opioid System, NOP Receptor Biology, and Stress Modulation (2026)

Nociceptin/orphanin FQ is the endogenous ligand of the NOP receptor — the fourth opioid receptor — with unique pain paradox pharmacology and stress axis…

15 min read

Notch/Delta-Jagged Signaling: NICD Proteolytic Release, CSL Transcriptional Switch, and Vascular Specification

Notch/Delta-Jagged signaling drives cell fate via ADAM10/γ-secretase NICD release, CSL/RBPJ transcriptional switch, and HES/HEY target genes.

17 min read

Notch Signaling: Receptor Processing, CSL Transcriptional Complex, and Pathway Regulation in Research

Mechanistic guide to Notch signaling: DSL ligand trans-activation, ADAM10/gamma-secretase processing, NICD-CSL-MAML ternary complex, HES/HEY targets, and…

16 min read

NT-3 (Neurotrophin-3): Complete Research Profile — TrkC Signaling, Proprioceptive Neuron Biology, Cochlear Regeneration, and Peripheral Nerve Research (2026)

NT-3 (Neurotrophin-3): TrkC neurotrophin for proprioceptive neurons, cochlear synapse repair, and peripheral nerve myelination. RUO research profile 2026.

10 min read

NT-4/5 (Neurotrophin-4): Complete Research Profile — TrkB Receptor Biology, NTF4 Glaucoma Mutations, Spiral Ganglion Neuroprotection, and Visual Cortex Plasticity Research (2026)

NT-4/5 (Neurotrophin-4) is a TrkB-activating neurotrophic factor with unique roles in sensory neuron survival, NTF4 glaucoma genetics, and BDNF-antagonism via…

13 min read

Obestatin: The Ghrelin Gene Co-Peptide, Scientific Controversy, and What the Research Actually Shows

Obestatin, a 23-amino acid peptide co-encoded with ghrelin in the GHRL gene, became one of neuropeptide biology's most controversial discoveries after its…

15 min read

Octreotide (Sandostatin): Complete Research Profile — FDA-Approved Somatostatin Analog, Clinical Indications, and Laboratory Reagent Biology 2026

Octreotide (Sandostatin) is the canonical FDA-approved somatostatin analog: first approved in 1988 for acromegaly, carcinoid syndrome, and VIPomas, and the…

23 min read

Omentin-1 (Intelectin-1/ITLN1): Omental Adipose-Derived Insulin Sensitizer and Anti-Inflammatory Adipokine in Cardiovascular Research

Omentin-1 is a 34-kDa secreted lectin encoded by ITLN1, predominantly produced in the stromal-vascular fraction of omental adipose tissue.

15 min read

Orexin A and Orexin B (Hypocretins): The Hypothalamic Neuropeptides Governing Arousal, Metabolism, and Oncology Research

Explore orexin A and orexin B — the hypothalamic neuropeptides driving cutting-edge arousal, metabolic, and oncology research via OX1R/OX2R signaling.

14 min read

Osteocalcin (BGLAP): Bone-Derived Hormone Promoting Testosterone, Muscle Glucose Uptake, Memory, and Insulin Secretion via GPRC6A in Research

Osteocalcin (bone gamma-carboxyglutamate protein, BGLAP) is a 49-amino acid vitamin K-dependent protein produced exclusively by osteoblasts that circulates in…

15 min read

Oxyntomodulin: Complete Research Profile — The Endogenous Dual GLP-1/Glucagon Agonist Bridging Metabolic and Gut-Brain Research (2026)

Oxyntomodulin is the endogenous proglucagon-derived dual agonist of GLP-1R and GCGR, reducing appetite and boosting energy expenditure in preclinical and…

15 min read

Oxytocin: Complete Research Profile — FDA-Approved Neuropeptide, OXTR Pharmacology & Laboratory Applications 2026

Comprehensive research profile of oxytocin (OXT) — FDA-approved neuropeptide, OXTR pharmacology, receptor signaling, pain modulation, wound healing, gut…

20 min read

P21 (P021): CNTF-Derived Peptide for Neurogenesis and Memory Research

Comprehensive research guide for P21 (P021), the BBB-permeable CNTF-derived tetrapeptide that promotes hippocampal neurogenesis and cognitive enhancement…

16 min read

p53/MDM2/Cell Cycle Checkpoint Signaling: Tumor Suppressor Networks and Research Tools

p53 is mutated in ~50% of cancers; MDM2 suppresses it via ubiquitination and transcriptional repression.

17 min read

PACAP (Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide): The Pleiotropic Neuropeptide Driving Neuroscience and Stress Research

Comprehensive research guide to PACAP38/PACAP27: discovery, receptor pharmacology, neuroprotection, stress signaling, and migraine research.

14 min read

Pasireotide (SOM230): Complete Research Profile — Multi-Receptor Somatostatin Analog, SSTR5 Pharmacology, and Laboratory Reagent Biology

Pasireotide (SOM230) is a multi-receptor somatostatin analog with high SSTR5 affinity, used as a laboratory research reagent.

7 min read

PDGF-BB and PDGFR Signaling: Pericyte Recruitment, Fibroblast Activation, and Tumor Vasculature

PDGF-BB activates PDGFR-α/β to drive pericyte recruitment, fibroblast activation, and tumor stromal remodeling.

17 min read

PDGF (Platelet-Derived Growth Factor): Complete Research Profile — PDGF-AA/BB/CC/DD Isoforms, PDGFRα/PDGFRβ Signaling, Wound Healing, Fibrosis, and Cancer Research (2026)

Complete research profile: PDGF isoforms, PDGFRα/PDGFRβ signaling, and research applications in wound healing, fibrosis, and cancer biology.

12 min read

PE-22-28: Complete Research Profile — Spadin Analog, TREK-1 Blocker, and Rapid-Onset Antidepressant Peptide for Nootropic Research (2026)

PE-22-28 is a synthetic heptapeptide and optimized spadin analog that blocks the TREK-1 potassium channel with sub-nanomolar affinity.

13 min read

PEG-MGF (Pegylated Mechano Growth Factor): Complete Research Profile 2026

PEG-MGF (Pegylated Mechano Growth Factor) extends the half-life of MGF/IGF-1Ec from minutes to days via PEGylation, enabling sustained satellite cell…

18 min read

Pentadecarginine (R15): What the Arginine-Homopolymer Literature Shows

Pentadecarginine (R15) has no PubMed record of its own. This profile covers the oligoarginine CPP, neuroprotection, antimicrobial and arginine wound data.

8 min read

Persephin (PSPN): Complete Research Profile — GFRα4/RET Receptor Complex, Dopaminergic Neuroprotection, Thyroid C-Cell Biology, and GDNF Family Ligand Research (2026)

Persephin (PSPN) is the GFRα4-selective GDNF family ligand. Research profile covering GFRα4/RET signaling, dopaminergic neuroprotection, thyroid C-cell…

11 min read

Phoenixin: Complete Research Profile — The GPR173 Neuropeptide in Reproductive Neuroendocrinology, Anxiolysis, Memory, and Pain Research (2026)

Phoenixin-14 and Phoenixin-20 are SMIM20-derived neuropeptides acting via GPR173 to promote GnRH release, reduce anxiety, enhance memory consolidation, and…

15 min read

Physalaemin: Amphibian Tachykinin Undecapeptide and NK1 Receptor Agonist — Pharmacology Research Reagent

Physalaemin is a classic 11-residue amphibian tachykinin from Physalaemus frog skin and a potent NK1 receptor agonist, long used as a radioligand and…

5 min read

Pinealon (EDR Tripeptide) Complete Research Profile — Khavinson Bioregulator for Pineal Gland, Neuroprotection & Circadian Biology (2026)

Pinealon (Glu-Asp-Arg) is a Khavinson bioregulator tripeptide targeting the pineal gland.

33 min read

PNC-27: Complete Research Profile — p53-Derived Anticancer Peptide and Selective Cancer Cell Lysis via Poptosis (2026)

PNC-27 is a chimeric 32-residue peptide containing the HDM-2-binding domain of p53 fused to penetratin.

15 min read

Pramlintide (Symlin): Complete Research Profile — The FDA-Approved Amylin Analog for Diabetes Management and Metabolic Research (2026)

Pramlintide (Symlin) is the only FDA-approved synthetic amylin analog, used adjunctively with insulin in Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes.

20 min read

Prion Protein (PrP/PRNP): Complete Research Profile — PrPC-to-PrPSc Conversion, Structural Biology, and the Origin of Prion-Like Neurodegeneration Research

PrP/PRNP research profile: PrPC-to-PrPSc conversion, RT-QuIC, codon 129 genetics, Aβ receptor role, and the origin of prion-like propagation research.

11 min read

Prokineticins (PROK1/PROK2): Complete Research Profile — Circadian Clock Output, Kallmann Syndrome Genetics, Angiogenesis, and PROKR Biology (2026)

Prokineticins (PROK1/PROK2) are cysteine-rich peptides acting via PROKR1/PROKR2 receptors to control circadian rhythm output, olfactory bulb neurogenesis…

15 min read

Prolactin (PRL): Pituitary Lactotroph Hormone Regulating Lactation, Immune Function, and Reproductive Axis via PRLR/JAK2/STAT5 Signaling in Research

Prolactin is a 199-amino-acid anterior pituitary hormone primarily regulating mammary gland development and lactation through the PRLR/JAK2/STAT5 pathway.

15 min read

Prolactin-Releasing Peptide (PrRP): A Misnamed Anorexigen and Stress Regulator Acting Through GPR10

Prolactin-releasing peptide (PrRP), discovered as a prolactin secretagogue in 1998, is now recognized primarily as a potent anorexigenic neuropeptide and…

15 min read

Properdin (Factor P): Complete Research Profile — The Only Positive Complement Regulator, Alternative Pathway Amplification, and Meningococcal Disease Genetics Research (2026)

Properdin (Factor P) is complement's only positive regulator — it stabilizes AP convertases via cyclic oligomers and its deficiency causes extreme…

9 min read

Prostamax (KEDP Tetrapeptide): Complete Research Profile — Khavinson Prostate Bioregulator (2026)

Complete research profile of Prostamax (KEDP tetrapeptide) — the Khavinson prostate bioregulator.

11 min read

Protegrin-1: Complete Research Profile — Porcine Cathelicidin β-Hairpin Antimicrobial Peptide, Membrane Pharmacology, and Laboratory Reagent Biology

Protegrin-1 (PG-1) is an 18-residue cationic beta-hairpin antimicrobial peptide from the porcine cathelicidin family that permeabilizes microbial membranes…

5 min read

PT-141 (Bremelanotide): Melanocortin Receptor Agonist Research Profile

PT-141 (bremelanotide) is the FDA-approved MC3R/MC4R agonist for HSDD in premenopausal women. Research profile: mechanism, RECONNECT trial data, and pricing.

14 min read

PYY (Peptide YY): Complete Research Profile — The Gut Satiety Hormone in Appetite Regulation and Obesity Research (2026)

PYY (Peptide YY) is a gut satiety hormone signaling via Y2 receptors. Research profile covering structure, NPY/AgRP mechanism, obesity, and GLP-1 synergy.

12 min read

RAS/MAPK/ERK Signaling: Oncogenic Mutations, RAF Dimerization, and Targeted Inhibition in Research

RAS/MAPK/ERK signaling drives proliferation and survival through a GTPase-kinase cascade.

16 min read

RBP4 (Retinol-Binding Protein 4): Adipokine Promoting Insulin Resistance via TLR4 and STRA6 in Metabolic Research

Retinol-binding protein 4 (RBP4) is a 21-kDa lipocalin secreted by liver and adipose tissue that serves as the principal plasma retinol (vitamin A) transport…

15 min read

Relaxin-2 (Serelaxin): The Vasodilatory Peptide Hormone Driving Cardiovascular, Anti-Fibrotic, and Reproductive Research (2026)

Relaxin-2 research profile: RXFP1 agonist driving vasodilation, multi-organ anti-fibrotic mechanisms, reproductive ECM remodeling, and next-generation…

11 min read

Research Peptide Contamination Risks: How to Identify and Avoid Low-Quality Sources

How to identify contamination risks in research peptides: supplier red flags, testing methods, community verification, and quality benchmarks for sourcing…

12 min read

Research Peptide Safety Checklist: 10 Non-Negotiable Steps Before Starting

A comprehensive 10-step safety checklist for peptide researchers covering reconstitution, storage, sterility, sourcing, and lab best practices.

13 min read

Resistin (RETN): Pro-Inflammatory Adipokine and Macrophage-Derived Mediator of Insulin Resistance in Research

Resistin is a 12.5-kDa cysteine-rich peptide encoded by RETN that functions as an adipokine promoting insulin resistance and inflammation.

15 min read

Retatrutide (LY3437943): Triple GIP/GLP-1/Glucagon Agonist Research Profile 2026

Retatrutide research profile: phase 2 obesity, MASLD and T2D results, the TRANSCEND-T2D-1 phase 3 readout, TRIUMPH design, safety signals and platform pricing.

10 min read

RFRP-3 / GnIH: Complete Research Profile — The Hypothalamic Brake on GnRH, Stress-Induced Reproductive Suppression, and Seasonal Fertility Research (2026)

RFRP-3 (GnIH) is the sole known hypothalamic inhibitor of GnRH — opposing kisspeptin to suppress the reproductive axis during stress, poor energy state, and…

15 min read

Salusin-α and Salusin-β: Opposing Cardiovascular Peptides in Atherosclerosis, Hypertension, and Vascular Remodeling

Salusin-α and salusin-β are proteolytic products of prosalusin with opposing cardiovascular profiles: salusin-α is vasodilatory and cardioprotective while…

15 min read

Sclerostin (SOST): Osteocyte-Derived Wnt Inhibitor Regulating Bone Formation and the Target of Romosozumab in Research

Sclerostin is a cystine-knot protein secreted by osteocytes that inhibits canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling by binding LRP5/6, suppressing bone formation.

15 min read

Secretin: The First Hormone — Pancreatic Research, Neuroendocrine Signaling, and the Brain-Gut Water Axis (2026)

Secretin — the first hormone ever discovered — is a 27-aa gut-brain peptide with pancreatic, CNS, water homeostasis, and autism research applications.

15 min read

Selank: Tuftsin Analog for Anxiolytic and Immunomodulatory Research

Research guide for Selank (TP-7), the synthetic tuftsin analog with dual anxiolytic and immunomodulatory properties mediated through GABAergic modulation.

16 min read

Semaglutide Research Outcomes: What Studies Show About Timeline and Duration of Effects (2026)

Research-backed timeline of semaglutide effects. Week-by-week changes in weight, glucose control, appetite hormones, and biomarkers from published clinical trials.

16 min read

Semaglutide Research Overview 2026: Mechanism, Trial Evidence and Platform Pricing

Semaglutide research overview: albumin-binding design, SUSTAIN, STEP, SELECT, FLOW and ESSENCE trial results, safety profile and pricing across 23 suppliers.

9 min read

Semax Research Profile: ACTH Analog Nootropic Peptide for Cognitive Enhancement and Neuroprotection Research (2026)

Research profile of Semax, the ACTH(4-10) heptapeptide analog developed in Russia, covering BDNF upregulation, serotonin modulation, neuroprotective…

8 min read

Sermorelin Peptide: Research Profile — FDA-Approved GHRH Analog for GH Deficiency

Comprehensive sermorelin research profile: FDA approval history (Geref Diagnostic, NDA 019920), GHRH receptor mechanism, IGF-1 axis stimulation, clinical…

18 min read

Serotonin (5-HT): Dual Neurotransmitter-Hormone Regulating Gut Motility, Mood, Hemostasis, and Vascular Tone Through 14+ Receptor Subtypes in Research

Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) is synthesized from tryptophan by TPH1 (enterochromaffin cells, mast cells, platelets) and TPH2 (raphe neurons) and acts…

15 min read

Setmelanotide: Complete Research Profile — MC4R-Selective Melanocortin Agonist, Receptor Pharmacology, and Laboratory Reagent Biology

Setmelanotide is a macrocyclic MC4R-selective melanocortin agonist used as a laboratory research reagent.

7 min read

SFRP5: Adipokine Secreted Frizzled-Related Protein 5 Acting as a Wnt5a Decoy Receptor with Anti-Inflammatory and Metabolic-Protective Functions in Research

SFRP5 is a white adipose tissue-derived adipokine that functions as a soluble decoy receptor for Wnt5a, sequestering it from JNK-activating Frizzled receptors.

15 min read

Small Humanin-Like Peptides (SHLPs 1–6): Complete Research Profile — Mitochondrial Microproteins Governing Cellular Survival, Metabolic Homeostasis, and Neurodegeneration (2026)

SHLP1–6 are mitochondria-encoded microproteins regulating apoptosis, metabolic homeostasis, and neurodegeneration — with SHLP2 linked to 50% reduced…

10 min read

Sincalide (Kinevac): CCK-8 Cholecystokinin Research Profile

Sincalide (Kinevac): FDA-approved CCK-8 cholecystokinin octapeptide for GI motility, gallbladder kinetics, and satiety research.

10 min read

SNAP-8 Research Profile 2026: SNARE Mechanism, Anti-Wrinkle Evidence & Data

SNAP-8 (Acetyl Octapeptide-3) complete research guide — how the SNARE neuromodulation mechanism works, clinical evidence for anti-wrinkle effects, and formulation data.

34 min read

Somatostatin: The Universal Inhibitory Peptide Governing Endocrine, Neuroendocrine, and GI Research

Somatostatin (SST-14/28) governs GH, insulin, and GI secretion via five GPCR subtypes. Research guide covering SSTR pharmacology, analogs, and NET biology.

13 min read

Spexin: Complete Research Profile — The GALR2/GALR3-Activating Neuropeptide, Obesity Biomarker, and Metabolic Disease Research (2026)

Spexin (SPX) is a phylogenomically discovered 14-aa neuropeptide that activates GALR2 and GALR3 receptors.

15 min read

SRC/FAK/Integrin Signaling: Focal Adhesion Kinase Activation, Mechanosensing, and Anoikis Resistance in Cancer Research

Comprehensive mechanistic analysis of SRC/FAK/integrin signaling — covering FAK Y397 autophosphorylation, SRC activation cascade, focal adhesion maturation…

18 min read

SS-31 (Elamipretide): Mitochondria-Targeted Tetrapeptide for Bioenergetic Research

Comprehensive research overview of SS-31 (elamipretide), a Szeto-Schiller tetrapeptide that selectively binds cardiolipin to restore mitochondrial…

12 min read

Stem Cell Factor (SCF/KITLG): KIT Receptor Tyrosine Kinase Ligand Governing HSC Maintenance, Mast Cell Biology, and Oncogenic Signaling in GIST and Mastocytosis Research

Stem cell factor (SCF/KITLG) is the ligand for the KIT receptor tyrosine kinase (CD117), a class III RTK essential for hematopoietic stem cell maintenance…

15 min read

Substance P and the Tachykinin Family: The Neuropeptide System Linking Nociception, Neuroinflammation, and Tissue Remodeling Research

Explore Substance P and the tachykinin peptide family — their receptor pharmacology, neuroinflammatory signaling, and expanding roles in research.

14 min read

Tau Protein (MAPT): Complete Research Profile — Microtubule Biology, Hyperphosphorylation, Prion-Like Propagation, and Tauopathy Research Tools (2026)

Tau (MAPT): isoforms, PHF6 aggregation motifs, hyperphosphorylation, prion-like seeding, and the p-tau217/MTBR-tau243 biomarker tools driving tauopathy…

9 min read

TB-500 Fragment 17-23: The Active Core Heptapeptide Research Guide — LKKTETQ Protocol & Full TB-500 Comparison

TB-500 Fragment 17-23 (Ac-LKKTETQ) is the 7-amino-acid actin-binding core of Thymosin Beta-4.

9 min read

TB-500 (Thymosin Beta-4) Research Guide 2026: Healing, Recovery, and Cost Analysis

Complete 2026 TB-500 research guide: Thymosin Beta-4 mechanism of action, preclinical healing and cardiac repair evidence, dosing protocols, and cost…

28 min read

TDP-43 (TARDBP): Complete Research Profile — RNA Metabolism, Cryptic Exon Repression, Prion-Like Propagation, and Neurodegeneration Research Applications (2026)

TDP-43 research profile: RNA-binding structure, cryptic exon repression (UNC13A, STMN2), prion-like propagation, ALS/FTLD/LATE pathology, and lab tools.

9 min read

Teduglutide (Gattex/Revestive): Complete Research Profile — FDA-Approved GLP-2 Analog for Short Bowel Syndrome and Intestinal Adaptation Research (2026)

Teduglutide (Gattex/Revestive) is the first FDA-approved GLP-2 receptor agonist — a Gly2-GLP-2 analog with DPP-4 resistance, half-life ~2h vs 7 min for native…

13 min read

Temporins: Complete Research Profile — Frog-Skin α-Helical Antimicrobial Peptides, Membrane Pharmacology, and Laboratory Reagent Biology

Temporins are short (10-14 residue) amphipathic alpha-helical antimicrobial peptides from frog skin and among the shortest natural AMPs, permeabilizing…

5 min read

Teriparatide (Forteo / PTH 1-34): Complete Research Profile — Dosage, Mechanism, and Bone Anabolic Applications

Research profile for Teriparatide (Forteo): FDA-approved PTH analog, 20 mcg dosage, PTH1R signaling, Wnt/sclerostin axis, fracture healing, and comparison…

14 min read

Tesamorelin Peptide: FDA-Approved GHRH Analog Research Profile (Egrifta)

Complete tesamorelin research guide covering FDA approval (Egrifta SV), Phase III clinical data, mechanism, visceral fat reduction, and GHRH analog comparison.

8 min read

Tesofensine: Triple Monoamine Reuptake Inhibitor for Metabolic Research

Tesofensine research profile: DAT/NET/SERT mechanism, the Lancet phase II obesity trial, Parkinson and PET data, regulatory status, and 33-supplier pricing.

9 min read

Testagen (KEDG Tetrapeptide): Complete Research Profile — Khavinson Testicular & Reproductive Bioregulator (2026)

Complete research profile of Testagen (KEDG tetrapeptide, Lys-Glu-Asp-Gly) — the Khavinson bioregulatory peptide targeting testicular tissue and the…

14 min read

TGF-β/SMAD Signaling: Receptor Complexes, Nuclear Effectors, and the EMT Transcriptional Switch

TGF-β/SMAD signaling drives EMT, fibrosis, and immune suppression through ALK4/5/7 and BMP receptor complexes, SMAD phosphorylation, and context-dependent…

18 min read

TGF-β1: SMAD Canonical Signaling, Non-SMAD Pathways, EMT, Fibrosis, and Selective Research Inhibitors

TGF-β1 drives EMT, fibrosis, and immune suppression via ALK5/SMAD2/3 and non-SMAD TAK1/PI3K/RhoA branches, dissected with SB431542, SIS3, and…

15 min read

Thrombopoietin (THPO/TPO): Master Regulator of Megakaryopoiesis and Platelet Production via MPL/JAK2/STAT5 Signaling in Research

Thrombopoietin (THPO/TPO) is the principal cytokine governing megakaryocyte differentiation and platelet production, signaling through its receptor MPL…

15 min read

Thymulin: Zinc-Dependent Thymic Hormone for Immune Regulation Research

Research profile of thymulin (FTS-Zn), the zinc-dependent nonapeptide thymic hormone essential for T-cell differentiation and immune system maturation.

16 min read

Tirzepatide (LY3298176): Complete Research Profile — Dual GIP/GLP-1 Receptor Agonist, Twincretin Biology, SURPASS and SURMOUNT Research Data, and Laboratory Applications (2026)

Tirzepatide (LY3298176) is a dual GIPR/GLP-1R co-agonist with biased receptor pharmacology. Research profile: mechanism, trial data, and lab applications.

11 min read

Tirzepatide Research Guide 2026: Dual GIP/GLP-1 Mechanism, Pricing, and Supplier Review

Tirzepatide (2026): dual GIP/GLP-1 receptor mechanism, SURPASS/SURMOUNT trial data, live pricing from 21+ verified vendors, supplier comparison, and protocols.

26 min read

TNF-α (Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha): Complete Research Profile — The Master Inflammatory Cytokine, TNFR1/TNFR2 Receptor Biology, and Anti-TNF Biologic Research (2026)

TNF-α is the master pro-inflammatory cytokine signaling through TNFR1/TNFR2, driving NF-κB, apoptosis, and necroptosis in autoimmunity and disease research.

12 min read

Triptorelin (Trelstar/Decapeptyl): Complete Research Profile — FDA-Approved GnRH Agonist for Gonadotropin Suppression and HPG Axis Research (2026)

Triptorelin (Trelstar, Decapeptyl, Diphereline) is an FDA-approved GnRH agonist decapeptide that drives deep HPG axis suppression through receptor…

14 min read

TSLP (Thymic Stromal Lymphopoietin): Complete Research Profile — TSLPR/CRLF2 Receptor Complex, JAK1-JAK2/STAT5 Signaling, Epithelial Alarmin Biology, and Laboratory Research Applications (2026)

Complete research profile of TSLP — the epithelial alarmin cytokine driving Type 2 immunity via TSLPR/CRLF2 and IL-7Rα, JAK1-JAK2/STAT5 signaling, ILC2 and…

13 min read

Ubiquitin-Proteasome System: E1/E2/E3 Cascade, 26S Proteasome Architecture, and Deubiquitinase Biology

The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) drives targeted protein degradation through E1/E2/E3 cascade ubiquitin conjugation, 26S proteasome substrate…

19 min read

Urocortin (UCN1/UCN2/UCN3): Complete Research Profile — The CRF-Related Peptide Family in Cardiac Protection, Stress Biology, and GI Research (2026)

Complete research profile: urocortin peptides UCN1, UCN2, UCN3 — CRF family ligands for cardiac protection, stress signaling, and GI biology research.

15 min read

Urotensin II: The Most Potent Endogenous Vasoconstrictor and Its Receptor GPR14 in Cardiovascular and Metabolic Research

Urotensin II (U-II), deorphanized in 2000 as the human GPR14 ligand, is the most potent endogenous vasoconstrictor identified — exceeding endothelin-1 — and…

15 min read

Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP): The Pleiotropic Neuropeptide in Neuroimmune and Circadian Research

Comprehensive research profile of VIP, a 28-amino acid neuropeptide with roles in circadian rhythm regulation, immunomodulation, and neuroprotection.

18 min read

Vasopressin (Arginine Vasopressin/ADH): Complete Research Profile — V1/V2 Receptor Biology, Water Balance, and Vasoconstriction Research (2026)

Complete research profile of arginine vasopressin (AVP/ADH): V1a, V1b, V2 receptor pharmacology, water balance, HPA stress axis, septic shock vasopressor…

16 min read

Vasopressin (ADH) Dosage Protocol Guide 2026: Reconstitution, Research Forms & Clinical Applications

Complete vasopressin dosage protocol guide for research: arginine vs lysine vasopressin forms, V1R/V2R-targeted dosing, reconstitution methods…

9 min read

Vaspin (SERPINA12): Visceral Adipose Tissue-Derived Serine Protease Inhibitor and Insulin Sensitizer in Metabolic Research

Vaspin (visceral adipose tissue-derived serpin A12) is a member of the serine protease inhibitor (serpin) superfamily encoded by SERPINA12, predominantly…

15 min read

VEGF/Angiogenesis Signaling: VEGFR Kinase Activation, HIF-1α Regulation, and Vascular Research Tools

Mechanistic analysis of VEGF/VEGFR angiogenesis signaling — VEGFR2 activation and phosphorylation sites, PI3K/AKT/eNOS vascular permeability, MAPK/ERK…

18 min read

VEGF-C: Lymphangiogenesis, VEGFR-3 Signaling, and Anti-Lymphangiogenic Research Tools

VEGF-C drives lymphangiogenesis via VEGFR-3 through CCBE1/ADAMTS3 propeptide processing, governing lymph node metastasis, lymphedema, and immune trafficking…

13 min read

VEGF (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor): Complete Research Profile — VEGF-A Isoforms, VEGFR1/2/3 Signaling, Angiogenesis, Lymphangiogenesis, and Anti-VEGF Biologic Research (2026)

Complete research profile of the VEGF ligand family — VEGF-A isoforms, VEGFR1/2/3 receptor signaling, angiogenesis mechanisms, and anti-VEGF biologic tools…

13 min read

Vesugen (KED Tripeptide): Complete Research Profile — Khavinson Vascular Endothelium Bioregulator (2026)

Complete research profile of Vesugen (KED tripeptide, Lys-Glu-Asp) — the Khavinson bioregulatory peptide targeting vascular endothelium.

14 min read

VGF and Its Bioactive Peptides: TLQP-21, TLQP-62, and NERP Peptides in Metabolism, Pain, and Neuropsychiatric Research

VGF (nerve growth factor-inducible) is a neurosecretory protein processed into multiple bioactive peptides including TLQP-21 (a C3aR1 complement receptor…

15 min read

Vilon (KE Dipeptide): Complete Research Profile — Khavinson Thymus & Immune Bioregulator (2026)

Complete research profile of Vilon (KE dipeptide, Lys-Glu) — the smallest Khavinson bioregulatory peptide, targeting thymic and immune tissue.

14 min read

Visfatin/eNAMPT (NAMPT): Extracellular Nicotinamide Phosphoribosyltransferase as Adipokine, NAD+ Regulator, and Cancer Driver in Research

Visfatin/eNAMPT is the extracellular form of nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT), the rate-limiting enzyme in the NAD+ salvage biosynthesis pathway.

15 min read

Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling: Frizzled Receptor Activation, Destruction Complex Regulation, and TCF/LEF Transcriptional Programs

Wnt/β-catenin signaling controls stem cell fate via Frizzled/LRP5/6 receptors, Axin/APC/GSK3β destruction complex, and TCF/LEF target gene activation.

17 min read

Wnt-5a: Complete Research Profile — ROR1/ROR2 Non-Canonical Receptor Biology, Wnt/PCP and Wnt/Ca²⁺ Signaling Cascades, Cancer Invasion and EMT Mechanisms, Inflammatory Macrophage Polarization, and Research Applications (2026)

Wnt-5a is a non-canonical Wnt ligand signaling through ROR1/ROR2 and Frizzled to activate PCP and Wnt/Ca2+ pathways.

13 min read

Ziconotide (Prialt): Complete Research Profile — FDA-Approved Conopeptide N-Type Calcium Channel Blocker for Pain Research (2026)

Ziconotide (Prialt) is the synthetic form of ω-conotoxin MVIIA from Conus magus — the only FDA-approved non-opioid intrathecal analgesic.

11 min read

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Supplier Reviews128 Research Profiles114 Buyer Guides65 Research Comparisons60 Dosage Guides56 Country Guides40 Stacks & Combinations38 Quality & Safety27 Research Studies24 Education24 Research Protocols18 Research Guides18 How-To Guides16 Beginner Guides15 Trending Research15 Analytical Methods12

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Peptide Guides

26RFa and QRFP: The Orexigenic RFamide Peptides Linking Energy Balance, Bone Metabolism, and Adrenal Function

Abaloparatide (PTHrP 1-34 Analog): Complete Research Profile — Biased PTH1R Agonism, Osteoanabolic Biology, and Bone Formation Research (2026)

ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone): The Master Stress Peptide Driving HPA Axis, Melanocortin Signaling, and Extraadrenal Research (2026)

Activin A and Activin B: TGF-β Superfamily Ligands Regulating Erythropoiesis, Vascular Remodeling, and Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension with Sotatercept Approval in Research

Activin A: Complete Research Profile — ACVR1B/ACVR2B Receptor Complex Biology, SMAD2/3 Canonical Signaling, Follistatin Antagonism, Cancer EMT and Cachexia Mechanisms, Reproductive Biology, and Research Applications (2026)

Adiponectin: The Insulin-Sensitizing Adipokine in Metabolic, Cardiovascular, and Cancer Biology Research (2026)

Adipotide (FTPP): Complete Research Profile — Prohibitin-Targeting Proapoptotic Peptide for Adipose Vasculature Research

Adrenomedullin: Complete Research Profile — The Vasoactive CGRP-Family Peptide in Cardiovascular, Tumor Biology, and Neuroendocrine Research (2026)

AICAR (Acadesine): Complete Research Profile — AMPK Activator & Exercise Mimetic (2026)

Alamandine: Complete Research Profile — MrgD Receptor Peptide of the Alternative Renin-Angiotensin System and Laboratory Reagent Biology

α-MSH (Alpha-Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone): Complete Research Profile — POMC-Derived Tridecapeptide in Pigmentation, Energy Regulation, and Neuroimmune Research (2026)

Alpha-Synuclein: Complete Research Guide to SNCA Biology, Aggregation Pathways, and Synucleinopathy Research Tools (2026)

Amphiregulin (AREG): Complete Research Profile — ADAM10/17 Ectodomain Shedding, ErbB1/ErbB4 Transactivation, Epithelial Barrier Repair Mechanisms, Regulatory T Cell Amplification, Tumor Immune Evasion Biology, and Research Applications (2026)

AMPK/Energy Sensing Signaling: LKB1 Activation, Substrate Network, and Research Tools

Amylin (IAPP): The Pancreatic Satiety Peptide Driving Metabolic, Neuroscience, and Next-Generation Obesity Research

Amyloid-Beta (Aβ) Peptides: Complete Research Profile — APP Processing, BACE1/γ-Secretase Cleavage, Aggregation Cascade, and Laboratory Research Applications (2026)

Angiotensin-(1-7): The Counter-Regulatory RAS Peptide — Cardiovascular, Metabolic, and Neuroprotection Research

Angiotensin II (AngII): Complete Research Profile — AT1R/AT2R Signaling, RAAS Cascade, Cardiovascular Fibrosis, and Biased Agonism Research (2026)

ANGPTL3, ANGPTL4, and ANGPTL8: Angiopoietin-like Proteins Regulating LPL, Triglycerides, and Dyslipidemia Including Evinacumab in Research

Anti-Müllerian Hormone (AMH): Complete Research Profile — AMHR2 Signaling, Ovarian Reserve Biomarker, PCOS, and Granulosa Cell Tumor Research (2026)

Apamin: Complete Research Profile — Bee-Venom SK (KCa2) Channel Blocker, Receptor Pharmacology, and Laboratory Reagent Biology

Apelin Peptides and the APJ Receptor: The Apelinergic System in Cardiovascular, Metabolic, and Aging Research

ARA-290 (Cibinetide) Complete Research Profile — Innate Repair Receptor Agonist, Neuropathy Trials & Tissue Protection (2026)

Argireline (Acetyl Hexapeptide-3): Complete Research Profile — SNARE-Targeting Cosmetic Peptide for Neuromuscular and Skin Research (2026)

Artemin (ARTN): Complete Research Profile — GFRα3/RET Receptor Complex, Nociceptor Sensitization, Sympathetic Nervous System Development, and Cancer Biology Research (2026)

Asprosin: The Fibrillin-1 Derived Fasting Hormone Linking Adipose Tissue to Hepatic Gluconeogenesis and Hypothalamic Appetite

Autophagy and mTOR Signaling: ULK1 Initiation, LC3 Lipidation, Selective Cargo Recognition, and Research Tools

Autophagy Signaling: ULK1 Initiation, LC3 Lipidation, Cargo Receptors, and Mitophagy via PINK1/Parkin

BDNF (Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor): Complete Research Profile — TrkB Signaling, Synaptic Plasticity, Neuropsychiatric Research, and Neurodegenerative Disease Applications (2026)

Beta-Endorphin: The POMC-Derived Opioid Neuropeptide in Pain Modulation, Stress, and Neuroimmune Research (2026)

Blood-Brain Barrier-Crossing Peptides: Complete Research Guide to BBB Shuttle Peptides (2026)

BMP-15 (Bone Morphogenetic Protein 15): Complete Research Profile — Cumulin Heterodimer Formation, Species-Specific Signaling, and Fecundity Genetics Research (2026)

BMP-2 and SMAD Signaling: Osteogenic Differentiation, Receptor Activation, and Research Applications

BMP-7 (Bone Morphogenetic Protein 7): Complete Research Profile — BMPR1A/BMPR1B/BMPR2 Receptor Complex, SMAD1/5/8 Signaling, Kidney Development, Osteogenesis, and Renal Fibrosis Research Applications (2026)

BMP-9 (GDF-2): Complete Research Profile — ALK1/Endoglin Signaling, the Most Osteogenic BMP, Vascular Quiescence, and Hereditary Hemorrhagic Telangiectasia Research (2026)

BPC-157 Complete Research Guide 2026: Mechanisms, Evidence and Platform Pricing

BPC-157 Side Effects: Research Safety Profile, Tolerance & What Lab Studies Show (2026)

Bradykinin: The Vasoactive Nonapeptide in Kallikrein-Kinin System, Inflammation, and Pain Research (2026)

Bronchogen (AEDL): The Khavinson Bronchopulmonary Tetrapeptide — Complete Research Profile

C-Peptide (Proinsulin Connecting Peptide): Complete Research Profile — Beta Cell Biology, Microvascular Protection, and Neuropathy Research (2026)

C1q: Complete Research Profile — Classical Complement Pathway Initiator, Microglial Synaptic Pruning, and Neuroinflammation Research (2026)

C3a and C5a Anaphylatoxins: Complement-Derived Peptides in GPCR Signaling and Inflammation Research

C5b-9 (Membrane Attack Complex): Complete Research Profile — Terminal Complement Assembly, Pore Formation, Sublytic Signaling, and Therapeutic Inhibition Research (2026)

Calcitonin (CT): Complete Research Profile — The Thyroid C-Cell Peptide, Osteoclast Inhibition, Species Potency Variants, and CTR Signaling in Research (2026)

Ca²⁺/Calmodulin/CaMK Signaling: Intracellular Calcium Dynamics, Calmodulin Biochemistry, and CaMKII Bistability

cAMP/PKA/CREB Signaling: Adenylyl Cyclase, Second Messenger Dynamics, and Transcriptional Memory

Cardiogen: Complete Research Profile — Khavinson Cardiac Bioregulatory Tetrapeptide (AEDR) for Heart Tissue Research (2026)

Carnosine (β-Alanyl-L-Histidine): Complete Research Profile — Muscle Buffering, Anti-Glycation, and Neuroprotection Research (2026)

CART Peptide: Complete Research Profile — Cocaine-Amphetamine Regulated Transcript, Energy Homeostasis, Anti-Reward Circuits, and GPR160 Receptor Research (2026)

Cartalax: Complete Research Profile — Khavinson Tripeptide Bioregulator for Cartilage, Chondrocyte, and Joint Tissue Research

Catestatin (CgA352-372): Chromogranin A-Derived Anti-Adrenergic Peptide in Hypertension and Cardiometabolic Research

CCK (Cholecystokinin): Complete Research Profile — The Gut-Brain Satiety Peptide in Digestive, Neuroendocrine, and Cognitive Research (2026)

CCL2 (MCP-1): Complete Research Profile — CCR2 Receptor Axes, NF-κB and AP-1 Transcriptional Control, Monocyte/Macrophage Recruitment, Tumor Microenvironment Biology, and Inflammatory Disease Research Applications (2026)

CDNF and MANF: Complete Research Profile — The ER-Resident Neurotrophic Factor Family in Parkinson's Disease, Neurodegeneration, and Cytoprotection Research (2026)

Cecropins: Complete Research Profile — The Founding Insect Antimicrobial Peptides, Amphipathic α-Helix Mechanism, and Anticancer Research Applications (2026)

Cetrorelix (Cetrotide): GnRH Antagonist Research Profile

cGAS-STING Innate Immunity Signaling: Complete Research Profile — DNA Sensing, 2',3'-cGAMP, TBK1/IRF3 Activation, and Cancer Immunotherapy Research Applications (2026)

CGRP (Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide): The Vasodilatory Neuropeptide Bridging Pain, Cardiovascular, and Tissue Repair Research

Chemerin (RARRES2): Adipokine, Innate Immune Chemoattractant, and Metabolic Regulator via CMKLR1/GPR1/CCRL2 Research

CJC-1295 DAC: Long-Acting Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone Analog

Complement Factor B (CFB): Complete Research Profile — Alternative Pathway C3 Convertase Assembly, Gain-of-Function Variants, and Complement Therapeutics Research (2026)

Complement Factor H (CFH): Complete Research Profile — Alternative Pathway Regulation, AMD/aHUS Genetics, and Complement Therapeutics Research (2026)

Conotoxins: Complete Research Profile — Cone Snail Venom Peptides as Precision Ion Channel Pharmacology Tools (2026)

Cortistatin: Complete Research Profile — The Somatostatin-Related Neuropeptide, Sleep Promotion, Anti-Inflammatory Biology, and SSTR/GHSR Pharmacology (2026)

CRH (Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone): Complete Research Profile — The HPA Axis Master Peptide in Stress Biology, Neuropsychiatric, and Inflammatory Research (2026)

Crotamine: Complete Research Profile — Rattlesnake-Venom Cell-Penetrating Myotoxin, Delivery-Vector Pharmacology, and Laboratory Reagent Biology

CXCL10 (IP-10): Complete Research Profile — CXCR3 Receptor Axes, IFN-γ-Driven Transcription, Th1 Cell Trafficking, Anti-Tumor Immunity, and Autoimmune Disease Research Applications (2026)

CXCL12 (SDF-1): Complete Research Profile — CXCR4/ACKR3 Receptor Axes, Hematopoietic Stem Cell Biology, Tumor Microenvironment, and Multi-Domain Research Applications (2026)

CXCL12 (SDF-1): Dual-Receptor Chemokine Biology, Hematopoietic Niches, and CXCR4-Targeted Research Tools

CXCL8 (IL-8): Complete Research Profile — CXCR1/CXCR2 Receptor Axes, Neutrophil Chemotaxis, Tumor Microenvironment Biology, and Inflammatory Research Applications (2026)

Cyclotides: Ultra-Stable Plant Cyclic Peptides as Scaffolds for Drug Discovery and Antimicrobial Research (2026)

Dermcidin: Anionic Eccrine Sweat Antimicrobial Peptide and Zinc-Dependent Membrane Channel — Pharmacology Research Reagent

Dermorphin and Deltorphin: Complete Research Profile — Frog-Derived D-Amino Acid Heptapeptides as Precision Mu- and Delta-Opioid Receptor Pharmacology Tools (2026)

Desmopressin (DDAVP): Vasopressin Analog Research Profile

Dihexa Dosage Protocol Guide: HGF Mimetic Cognitive Research 2026

Dihexa: HGF Receptor Agonist for Cognitive and Synaptogenic Research

DNA Damage Response Signaling: ATM/ATR Kinases, Checkpoint Enforcement, and PARP Inhibitor Mechanisms

DSIP (Delta Sleep-Inducing Peptide) Dosage Protocol Guide — Reconstitution, Research Dosing & Sleep Research 2026